Geologic and geomorphic controls of coal development in some Tertiary Rocky Mountain basins, USA

Previous investigations have not well defined the controls on the development of minable coals in fluvial environments. This study was undertaken to provide a clearer understanding of these controls, particularly in of the lower Tertiary coal-bearing deposits of the Raton and Powder River basins in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States. In this region, large amounts of coals accumulated in swamps formed in the flow-through fluvial systems that infilled these intermontane basins. Extrabasinal and intrabasinal tectonism partly controlled the stratigraphic and facies distributions of minable coal deposits. The regional accumulation of coals was favored by the rapid basin subsidence coupled with minimal uplift of the source area. During these events, coals developed in swamps associated with anastomosed and meandering fluvial systems and alluvial fans. The extensive and high rate of sediment input from these fluvial systems promoted the formation of ombrotrophic, raised swamps, which produced low ash and anomalously thick coals. The petrology and palynology of these coals, and the paleobotany of the associated sediments, suggest that ombrotrophic, raised swamps were common in the Powder River Basin, where the climate during the early Tertiary was paratropical. The paleoecology of these swamps is identical to that of the modern ombrotrophic, raised swamps of the Baram and Mahakam Rivers of Borneo.     

淮南煤田煤层气成藏动力学系统的机制与地质模型研究

淮南煤田由次生生物成因和热成因气组成的混合型煤层气藏,受各种地质和水文地质条件的影响和控制。本文通过热流场和地温场、古构造应力场和原地应力场以及地下水动力场的系统分析,探讨了煤层气成藏动力学系统的形成机制,进而提出了相应的成藏地质模型。淮南煤田的煤层气藏虽然属向斜式(或盆心)聚气模型,但是,该模型强调,作为附加气源的次生生物气的补充,成藏动力学系统演化、构造样式和能量场的耦合关系,是混合型煤层气富集成藏的主因。      

Cleats and their relation to geologic lineaments and coalbed methane potential in Pennsylvanian coals in Indiana

Cleats and fractures in Pennsylvanian coals in southwestern Indiana were described, statistically analyzed, and subsequently interpreted in terms of their origin, relation to geologic lineaments, and significance for coal permeability and coalbed gas generation and storage. These cleats can be interpreted as the result of superimposed endogenic and exogenic processes. Endogenic processes are associated with coalification (i.e., matrix dehydration and shrinkage), while exogenic processes are mainly associated with larger-scale phenomena, such as tectonic stress.At least two distinct generations of cleats were identified on the basis of field reconnaissance and microscopic study: a first generation of cleats that developed early on during coalification and a second generation that cuts through the previous one at an angle that mimics the orientation of the present-day stress field. The observed parallelism between early-formed cleats and mapped lineaments suggests a well-established tectonic control during early cleat formation. Authigenic minerals filling early cleats represent the vestiges of once open hydrologic regimes. The second generation of cleats is characterized by less prominent features (i.e., smaller apertures) with a much less pronounced occurrence of authigenic mineralization. Our findings suggest a multistage development of cleats that resulted from tectonic stress regimes that changed orientation during coalification and basin evolution.The coals studied are characterized by a macrocleat distribution similar to that of well-developed coalbed methane basins (e.g., Black Warrior Basin, Alabama). Scatter plots and regression analyses of meso- and microcleats reveal a power-law distribution between spacing and cleat aperture. The same distribution was observed for fractures at microscopic scale. Our observations suggest that microcleats enhance permeability by providing additional paths for migration of gas out of the coal matrix, in addition to providing access for methanogenic bacteria.The abundance, distribution, and orientation of cleats control coal fabric and are crucial features in all stages of coalbed gas operations (i.e., exploration and production). Understanding coal fabric is important for coal gas exploration as it may be related to groundwater migration and the occurrence of methanogenic bacteria, prerequisite to biogenic gas accumulations. Likewise, the distribution of cleats in coal also determines pathways for migration and accumulation of thermogenic gas generated during coalification.     

西北低阶煤中生物成因煤层气的成藏模拟实验

以往经验认为,具有商业价值的煤层气资源主要存在于中煤阶的煤层中,煤阶太低,一般含气量不高,不具有勘探价值.但是近几年来发现美国的粉河和澳大利亚的苏拉特等低煤阶盆地煤层厚度大,渗透率高,资源丰度大,含气饱和度高,可获得商业性的气流.从其气体的成因来看,其中有很大一部分是生物成因的煤层气.通过本次采用FY-Ⅱ型煤层气成藏模拟装置和西北低煤阶含煤盆地的煤岩样品开展了低煤阶生物成因的煤层气成藏模拟,从实验角度证明了中国西北地区虽然煤层煤阶较低,热成因气较少,但是却存在着具有商业价值的二次生物成因的甲烷气,再加上含煤层系众多,煤层厚度大,资源丰度极高,仍具有巨大的勘探潜力.     

Permeability of coals and characteristics of desorption tests: Implications for coalbed methane production

Desorption tests, conducted before development drilling, can predict early production rates of coalbed methane wells. In this study, results from 136 desorption tests from 30 coreholes are compared to subsequent production histories of surrounding wells. Coals studied are from the Carboniferous Pottsville Formation in the Black Warrior Basin of Alabama, USA. The investigation indicates that the best predictor for gas production is ‘‘gas yield at 120 days, divided by sample depth'. This quotient has a higher correlation with actual gas production than other variables examined, including original reserves in-place. Gas content of coal generally increases with depth. However, coal permeability, and hence the recovery factor, tends to decrease with depth. Therefore, coalbed methane exploration should focus on finding the optimal balance between gas yield and depth. Commercially successful wells are characterized by coals with high gas yields at shallow depths. Desorption tests, especially of slowly-desorbing coals, should be run for a minimum of 120 days, or else should be extrapolated to that time if tests are terminated earlier.     

煤层割理的形成机理及在煤层气勘探开发评价中的意义

在系统研究鄂尔多斯东缘晚古生代煤层割理的基础上，结合煤化作用和油气生成研究新成果，对煤层割理的形成机理进行了探讨。认为割理是煤化作用过程中，煤因生成水、烃及其它气体而产生收缩内应力和高孔隙流体压力，当其超过煤的力学强度时，致使煤发生张性破裂而形成。割理的原始走向受割理形成时期的古地应力场控制。进而指出中变质光亮煤和半亮煤中割理最发育，因此这些煤层分布区是煤层气勘探开发的优选靶区。     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987112000308

The Panguan Syncline contains abundant coal resources,which may be a potential source of coalbed methane.In order to evaluate the coalbed methane production potential in this area,we investigated the pore-fracture system of coalbed methane reservoirs,and analyzed the gas sorption and seepage capacities by using various analytical methods,including scanning electron microscopy（SEM）,optical microscopy,mercury-injection test,low-temperature N₂ isotherm adsorption/desorption analyses,lowfield nuclear magnetic resonance and methane isothermal adsorption measurements.The results show that the samples of the coal reservoirs in the Panguan Syncline have moderate gas sorption capacity.However, the coals in the study area have favorable seepage capacities,and are conductive for the coalbed methane production.The physical properties of the coalbed methane reservoirs in the Panguan Syncline are generally controlled by coal metamorphism:the low rank coal usually has low methane sorption capacity and its pore and microfractures are poorly developed;while the medium rank coal has better methane sorption capacity,and its seepage pores and microfractures are well developed,which are sufficient for the coalbed methane’s gathering and exploration.Therefore,the medium rank coals in the Panguan Syncline are the most prospective targets for the coalbed methane exploration and production.     

鄂尔多斯盆地东北缘保德地区煤层气成因

       鄂尔多斯盆地东北缘保德地区煤层气井组试采取得较好效果,但煤层气成因尚未形成统一认识,影响到对区域煤层 气勘探开发潜力的进一步认识。本文基于各类煤层气样品组分和稳定同位素的分析,对其成因进行了探讨。结果表明,煤 层气组分以甲烷为主,重烃浓度极低;δ13CCH4明显偏轻,部分δ13CCH4和δDCH4分布在热成因与二氧化碳还原型生物成因气过 渡区间;δ13CCO2相对较重,且与δ13CCH4之间存在负相关关系。分析认为,该区煤层气具有混合成因,以热成因气为主,兼 具生物成因气的特征,生物甲烷形成于二氧化碳还原途径,煤层水的化学和动力条件以及煤岩孔渗条件有利于产甲烷菌的 大量繁殖。     

非常规含气系统的研究和勘探进展

从含油气系统的观点出发，分别总结了煤层气、盆地中心气、裂缝型页岩气、浅层生物气和天然气水合物五类非常规含气系统的地质和地球化学特征，修改和补充了传统油气系统的概念，为天然气新领域的开拓和发展提供了新的思路。常规天然气藏为浮力驱动的存在于构造或地层圈闭中的独立气藏，而非常规天然气藏一般不是浮力驱动的聚集气藏，它们在区域上呈连续弥散的聚集，常常与构造和地层圈闭无关，因此，它们的成藏要素和过程与常规天然气藏有所区别。在煤层气和页岩气中，烃源岩既是储层，又是盖层且运移距离很短；储层多为低孔隙度、低渗透性的裂缝型储层，主要为毛细管力和水力封闭，大型煤层气藏可以出现在向斜构造中。     

鄂尔多斯盆地兴县地区煤层气地球化学特征及成因

煤层气化学组分、甲烷碳氢同位素特征对煤层气成因、分布规律和煤层气资源评价具有重要意义。为了查明河东煤田北部兴县地区山西组、太原组煤层甲烷及二氧化碳成因，采集研究区煤层气井解吸气样，通过组分分析、CH₄碳氢同位素和CO₂碳同位素测试，根据煤层气成因图版，分析了煤层气稳定同位素的地质影响因素，揭示了研究区煤层气成因。结果表明，区内主力煤层的甲烷碳同位素存在明显差异:8煤甲烷δ13C₁值介于-55.1‰~-44.2‰，平均为-49.2‰；13煤δ13C₁值介于-65.7‰~-55.7‰，平均为-59.8‰。同一煤层内甲烷碳同位素呈现出随煤层埋深增加而变重、随水动力条件增强变轻的特点；甲烷碳同位素偏轻，重烃组分偏少，表明受到一定因素或次生作用的影响。8煤以热成因气为主，13煤以次生生物成因气为主。研究区8煤δ13C （CO₂）介于-17.3‰~-4.8‰，13煤δ13C （CO₂）介于-26.3‰~-6.9‰，二氧化碳为煤热演化初期或最近一次煤层抬升再沉降后煤中有机质热裂解产生。研究成果为明确该区煤层气勘探开发方向提供了理论依据。      

滇东—黔西地区煤层气构造特征

煤层气在成煤过程中生成，并主要以煤层为储层的非常规天然气，通常甲烷组分占绝大部分，故亦称为煤层甲烷。甲烷以分子吸附状态，赋存于煤基质的巨大内表面上。滇东－黔西地区煤层气资源丰富，开发煤层气资源，为该区的经济腾飞将起到极大的推动作用。煤层气的勘探开发，须要研究形成煤层气的聚煤盆地的地质构造。地壳地质和深部构造是一个统一的整体。通过该区重力、磁力异常、ＴＭ遥感影像、古今地应力场研究，滇东－黔西地区，莫     

Potential coalbed methane resources in Atlantic Canada

Thirteen coal areas of the Maritime Provinces in Atlantic Canada are estimated to contain some 2.23 trillion m³ (78.8 TCF) [TCF, BCF, MCF: trillion, billion, million cubic feet]) of coalbed methane resources. This compares with 510 billion m³ (18 TCF) of natural gas calculated for the Sable offshore resources in eastern Canada. In the United States, where coalbed methane resource evaluations and production have increased substantially over the past 20 years, 7% (1.34 TCF) of total domestic gas production is derived from coalbed methane. In this period, the cumulative US production of coalbed methane has exceeded 198 billion m³ (7 TCF) and more than 8000 coalbed methane wells have been drilled.In Maritime Canada, the largest coalbed methane resources occur in the offshore areas of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Sydney Basins where 196 and 26 billion m³ (69 and 9.3 TCF) of gas, respectively, have been projected. In the old mines, the greatest resources are present in the Prince and Phalen mines of the Sydney coalfield, which together contain 1.70 billion m³ (60 BCF) of gas, and in the Westville mine of the Pictou coalfield with 198 million m³ (70 BCF).Vitrinite is the dominant constituent in 27 of the 42 coals examined. Vitrinite/inertinite ratios for these 27 coals range from 4.0 to 8.4. These high values may indicate the presence of highly fractured coals with corresponding high permeability and flow efficiency, favourable for the storage and flow of methane gas. Coal rank has a pronounced effect on coalbed methane generation, and the prime gas zone often lies between 1.2% and 1.6% Ro max. (medium to low volatile bituminous). The prime zone in the Maritimes Basin underlies much of the central and eastern Gulf of St. Lawrence, and extends for significant distances seaward into the offshore Sydney Basin.Coalbed methane production from the very large resources available in Atlantic Canada may provide a valuable and long-lasting energy resource, largely free of polluting components.     

Paragenetic relationship of thermal maturation (coalification) and tectonic framework of some Canadian Rocky Mountain coals

Use of the attitude of the optical axis of vitrinite as an indicator of paragenetic relationship of thermal maturation/coalification and tectonics is discussed. A constant angular relationship between the optical axis and bedding plane of coals is observed in seven coal mines in the Canadian Rocky Mountain coal fields. This constant relationship suggests that thermal maturation predated tectonic structures.     

Geological controls on the formation and distribution of gas in British coal measure strata

The methane, ethane, higher alkanes and nitrogen found in British coal seams are residual products of coalification occasionally complemented by petroleum-derived hydrocarbons. Carbon dioxide, a minor constituent of coal seam gas, may have been introduced during the phase of cleat mineralisation following uplift. Helium and argon are considered to be radiogenic in origin.Variations in seam methane content with depth, geographic location and rank can be interpreted in terms of the coalification and erosion history of a coalfield. However, the limitations inherent in an analysis in which coal rank is represented by a single parameter must be recognised.There are indications that the methane content of a seam is not likely to exceed the methane sorption capacity of the coal determined at a temperature commensurate with that obtaining at the maximum burial depth.Research in the East Midlands coalfield suggests that structurally controlled migration of coalification gas was contemporaneous with folding. During the Permo-Carboniferous erosion period gas was lost from outcropping seams. Subsequently, the bulk permeability of the seams must have been reduced, perhaps as a result of cleat mineralisation, because no re-distribution of methane appears to have occurred in response to later (Tertiary) deformation and gas contents of seams at incrop below the base of the Permo-Triassic have remained zero.Data on the effects of faulting on seam gas contents are few but the expectation is that faults, of appropriate age and orientation, whilst inhibiting in-seam migration may, in some instances have aided cross-measures movement of gas. Elevated seam ethane and propane contents are frequently encountered in seams disturbed by oil-bearing faults.     

吐哈盆地低煤阶煤层气地质特征与成藏控制因素研究

我国低煤阶煤层气资源丰富,气煤以下的低煤阶煤层气资源量15.13×1012m3。迄今为止尚无成功开发先例,地质成藏基础研究亟待加强。论文通过对吐哈盆地煤层气成藏条件、成藏特征分析,探讨了地质构造、聚煤作用、煤系特征、生物气形成与保存等低煤阶煤层气成藏控制因素,初步确定了吐哈盆地煤层气成藏类型及其分布特征,把吐哈盆地煤层气成藏模式划分为盆内凹陷成藏模式、盆缘陡坡成藏模式和盆缘缓坡成藏模式3种类型,根据成藏过程的匹配特征把煤层气藏类型划分为储-逸型低压逸散式、储-运-逸型运移储集式两种类型,该划分方案有助于指导低煤阶煤层气成因研究与资源勘探开发。     

Noble gas tracing of groundwater/coalbed methane interaction in the San Juan Basin, USA

The San Juan Basin natural gas field, located in northwestern New Mexico and southwestern Colorado in the USA, is a case-type coalbed methane system. Groundwater is thought to play a key role in both biogenic methane generation and the CO₂ sequestration potential of coalbed systems. We show here how noble gases can be used to construct a physical model that describes the interaction between the groundwater system and the produced gas. We collected 28 gas samples from producing wells in the artesian overpressured high production region of the basin together with 8 gas samples from the underpressured low production zone as a control. Stable isotope and major species determination clearly characterize the gas in the high production region as dominantly biogenic in origin, and the underpressured low producing region as having a significant admix of thermogenic coal gas. ³He/⁴He ratios increase from 0.0836R_a at the basin margin to 0.318R_a towards the center, indicating a clear but small mantle He signature in all gases. Coherent fractionation of water-derived ²⁰Ne/³⁶Ar and crustal ⁴He/⁴⁰Ar* are explained by a simple Rayleigh fractionation model of open system groundwater degassing. Low ²⁰Ne concentrations compared to the model predicted values are accounted for by dilution of the groundwater-associated gas by desorbed coalbed methane. This Rayleigh fractionation and dilution model together with the gas production history allows us to quantify the amount of water involved in gas production at each well. The quantified water volumes in both underpressured and overpressured zones range from 1.7 × 10³ m³ to 4.2 × 10⁵ m³, with no clear distinction between over- and underpressured production zones. These results conclusively show that the volume of groundwater seen by coal does not play a role in determining the volume of methane produced by secondary biodegradation of these coalbeds. There is no requirement of continuous groundwater flow for renewing the microbes or nutrient components. We furthermore observe strong mass related isotopic fractionation of ²⁰Ne/²²Ne and ³⁸Ar/³⁶Ar isotopic ratios. This can be explained by a noble gas concentration gradient in the groundwater during gas production, which causes diffusive partial re-equilibration of the noble gas isotopes. It is important for the study of other systems in which extensive groundwater degassing may have occurred to recognize that severe isotopic fractionation of air-derived noble gases can occur when such concentration gradients are established during gas production. Excess air-derived Xe and Kr in our samples are shown to be related to the diluting coalbed methane and can only be accounted for if Xe and Kr are preferentially and volumetrically trapped within the coal matrix and released during biodegradation to form CH₄.     

Optical properties of pseudovitrinite; implications for its origin

A set of Pennsylvanian coals from the North American coal basins, ranging in vitrinite reflectance from 0.65% to 1.75%, was examined, with special emphasis on the optical properties of pseudovitrinite. The results suggest that pseudovitrinite originates from the same material as telocollinite. Slits in the pseudovitrinite seem to have originated in situ due to low-temperature oxidation of woody material; their opening might have been facilitated by devolatilization during coalification. The dominant orientation of the slits is perpendicular to bedding. The intensity and orientation of the slits in pseudovitrinite could be important factors in predicting coalbed gas extraction from coal.     

A comparison of finely dispersed mineral components in fossil coals of the Kama and Donets basins

This study presents the results of SEM-EDX analysis of the mineral components of coals from the Kama (Volga-Ural region) and Donets basins and discusses the characteristics of the depositional environments and conditions of coalification. The results reveal differences in the mineral composition of coals from these two basins.     

简评《地质辞典》中的“煤层气”词条

简要评述了《地质辞典》中“煤层气”词条释义方面存在的谬误；指出该词条作者不仅没有给读者任何正确、有用的信息，更为严重的是对煤层气资源工业价值的否定性评价阻碍了我国煤层气的研究、勘探开发进程。因此《地质辞典》再版时，应对煤层气词条进行全面修订，以免继续误导读者。     

国际煤层气组成和成因研究

煤层气已成为一种新兴的非常规天然气资源。煤层气是成煤物质在煤化过程中生成并储集于煤层中的气体。按其成因类型分为生物成因气和热成因气。生物成因气有原生和次生两种类型,原生生物成因气一般在低级煤中生成,很难保存下来。次生生物成因气常与后来的煤层含水系统的细菌活动有关。热成因煤层气的生成始于高挥发份烟煤（Ro＝０.5％～0.8％）。与分散的Ⅰ／Ⅱ型或Ⅲ型干酪根生成的气体相比,煤层气的地球化学组成变化较大,反映了控制煤层气组成和成因的因素多而复杂,主要的影响因素包括煤岩组分、煤级、生气过程和埋藏深度及相应的温度压力条件。此外,水动力等地质条件和次生作用等也影响着煤层气的组成。