Quantifying subglacial bed roughness in Antarctica: implications for ice-sheet dynamics and history

Glaciated landscapes consist of complex assemblages of landforms resulting from ice flow dynamic regimes and ice-sheet history, superimposed over, and in turn modifying, preglacial topography, lithology and geological structure. Insights into the formation of glaciated landscapes can, in principle, be obtained by analysing modern ice-sheet beds, but terrain analyses beneath modern ice sheets are restricted by the inaccessibility of the bed. It is, however, possible to quantify roughness, the vertical variation of the subglacial interface with horizontal distance, along two-dimensional images of the bed obtained from radio-echo sounding (RES). Here we collate several case studies from Antarctica, where roughness calculations have been used as a glaciological tool to infer basal processes and ice-sheet history over large (>500 km²) areas. We present two examples from West Antarctica, which demonstrate the utility of bed roughness in determining the presence and extent of subglacial sediments, glacial dynamics and former ice-sheet size. We also present two examples from East Antarctica, which illustrate how roughness provides knowledge of ice-sheet dynamics in the interior and pre-Quaternary ice-sheet histories. In modern ice-sheet settings, characterising bed roughness along RES tracks has the twin advantages of being relatively simple to calculate while producing informative subsurface data, and is especially powerful at furthering understanding when coupled with knowledge of ice flow from field, satellite and modelling investigations. The technique also offers significant potential for the comparison of modern and former ice-sheet terrains, contributing to an improved understanding of the formation and evolution of glaciated landscapes.     

Late Weichselian/Devensian ice sheets in the North Sea and adjacent land areas.

A considerable discussion concerning the extent of the last Scandinavian and Scottish ice sheets has continued for several years. In contrast to earlier models based on an ice sheet extending to the edge of the continental shelf, recent proposals favor a limited geographical and vertical extent and imply that the Scandinavian and British ice sheets did not coalesce in the North Sea. These models indicate an ice-free, open embayment in the northern North Sea and areas of dry land in the southern North Sea region during the Late Weichselian/Devensian glacial maximum. Late Weichselian ice-sheet profiles from the North Sea to the adjacent land areas of southern Norway have been tentatively reconstructed. Low-gradient profiles in the present shelf areas are explained by unconsolidated, deformable sediments on the continental shelf inducing subglacial water pressure and low basal shear stress beneath marginal parts of the Scandinavian ice sheet. Combined with higher basal shear stress conditions in the present mainland areas, this explains the slightly concave and convex shape of the reconstructed ice-sheet profiles in the present coastal and inland areas of western Norway, respectively.     

Timing and pace of ice-sheet withdrawal across the marine–terrestrial transition west of Ireland during the last glaciation

Understanding the pace and drivers of marine-based ice-sheet retreat relies upon the integration of numerical ice-sheet models with observations from contemporary polar ice sheets and well-constrained palaeo-glaciological reconstructions. This paper provides a reconstruction of the retreat of the last British–Irish Ice Sheet (BIIS) from the Atlantic shelf west of Ireland during and following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). It uses marine-geophysical data and sediment cores dated by radiocarbon, combined with terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide and optically stimulated luminescence dating of onshore ice-marginal landforms, to reconstruct the timing and rate of ice-sheet retreat from the continental shelf and across the adjoining coastline of Ireland, thus including the switch from a marine- to a terrestrially-based ice-sheet margin. Seafloor bathymetric data in the form of moraines and grounding-zone wedges on the continental shelf record an extensive ice sheet west of Ireland during the LGM which advanced to the outer shelf. This interpretation is supported by the presence of dated subglacial tills and overridden glacimarine sediments from across the Porcupine Bank, a westwards extension of the Irish continental shelf. The ice sheet was grounded on the outer shelf at ~26.8 ka cal bp with initial retreat underway by 25.9 ka cal bp. Retreat was not a continuous process but was punctuated by marginal oscillations until ~24.3 ka cal bp. The ice sheet thereafter retreated to the mid-shelf where it formed a large grounding-zone complex at ~23.7 ka cal bp. This retreat occurred in a glacimarine environment. The Aran Islands on the inner continental shelf were ice-free by ~19.5 ka bp and the ice sheet had become largely terrestrially based by 17.3 ka bp. This suggests that the Aran Islands acted to stabilize and slow overall ice-sheet retreat once the BIIS margin had reached the inner shelf. Our results constrain the timing of initial retreat of the BIIS from the outer shelf west of Ireland to the period of minimum global eustatic sea level. Initial retreat was driven, at least in part, by glacio-isostatically induced, high relative sea level. Net rates of ice-sheet retreat across the shelf were slow (62–19 m a⁻¹) and reduced (8 m a⁻¹) as the ice sheet vacated the inner shelf and moved onshore. A picture therefore emerges of an extensive BIIS on the Atlantic shelf west of Ireland, in which early, oscillatory retreat was followed by slow episodic retreat which decelerated further as the ice margin became terrestrially based. More broadly, this demonstrates the importance of localized controls, in particular bed topography, on modulating the retreat of marine-based sectors of ice sheets.     

Geomorphology and glacial history of Rauer Group, East Antarctica

The presence of glacial sediments across the Rauer Group indicates that the East Antarctic ice sheet formerly covered the entire archipelago and has since retreated at least 15 km from its maximum extent. The degree of weathering of these glacial sediments suggests that ice retreat from this maximum position occurred sometime during the latter half of the last glacial cycle. Following this phase of retreat, the ice sheet margin has not expanded more than ∼ 1 km seaward of its present position. This pattern of ice sheet change matches that recorded in Vestfold Hills, providing further evidence that the diminutive Marine Isotope Stage 2 ice sheet advance in the nearby Larsemann Hills may have been influenced by local factors rather than a regional ice-sheet response to climate and sea-level change.     

Streamlined bedrock terrain and fast ice flow, Jakobshavns Isbrae, West Greenland: implications for ice stream and ice sheet dynamics

This study investigates the marginal subglacial bedrock bedforms of Jakobshavns Isbrae, West Greenland, in order to examine the processes governing bedform evolution in ice stream and ice sheet areas, and to reconstruct the interplay between ice stream and ice sheet dynamics. Differences in bedform morphology (roche moutonnee or whaleback) are used to explore contrasts in basal conditions between fast and slow ice flow. Bedform density is higher in ice stream areas and whalebacks are common. We interpret that this is related to higher ice velocities and thicker ice which suppress bed separation. However, modification of whalebacks by plucking occurs during deglaciation due to ice thinning, flow deceleration, crevassing and fluctuations in basal water pressure. The bedform evidence points to widespread basal sliding during past advances of Jakobshavns Isbrae. This was encouraged by increased basal temperatures and melting at depth, as well as the steep marginal gradients of Jakobshavns Isfjord which allowed rapid downslope evacuation of meltwater leading to strong ice/bedrock coupling and scouring. In contrast to soft-bedded ice stream bedforms, the occurrence of fixed basal perturbations and higher bed roughness in rigid bed settings prevents the basal ice subsole from maintaining a stable form which, coupled with secondary plucking, counteracts the development of bedforms with high elongation ratios. Cross-cutting striae and double-plucked, rectilinear bedforms suggest that Jakobshavns Isbrae became partially unconfined during growth phases, causing localised diffluent flow and changes in ice sheet dynamics around Disko Bugt. It is likely that Disko Bugt harboured a convergent ice flow system during repeated glacial cycles, resulting in the formation of a large coalesced ice stream which reached the continental shelf edge.     

Ice stream sticky spots: A review of their identification and influence beneath contemporary and palaeo-ice streams

Rapidly-flowing ice streams are the arterial drainage routes in continental ice sheets and exert a major influence on ice sheet mass balance. Recent observations have revealed that ice stream flow exhibits considerable variability, with relatively rapid changes taking place in speed and direction. This spatial and temporal variability is intimately linked to the conditions at the base of the ice streams and the distribution of localised patches of basal friction, known as ‘sticky spots’. In this paper, we provide a detailed review of sticky spot observations from both contemporary and palaeo-ice stream beds in order to better understand their nature and influence. Observations and theoretical considerations reveal four primary causes of ‘stickiness’: (i), bedrock bumps; (ii), till-free areas; (iii), areas of ‘strong’ (well drained) till; and (iv), freeze-on of subglacial meltwater. These may act together in one location, or in isolation; and a progressive increase in their distribution could lead to ice stream shut-down. Bedrock bumps are influential under active ice streams, where they provide form drag and can create thinner ice which increases the likelihood of basal freeze-on. Increased bed roughness may prevent the lateral migration of some ice streams but bedrock bumps are unlikely to cause ice stream shut-down because, over long time-scales, ice stream erosion might be expected to reduce their amplitude. The influence of till-free areas beneath an ice stream will depend critically on the amount of water that might be drawn out of the surrounding till to lubricate such areas. They are likely to be most important in ice stream onset zones but their identification has proved difficult beneath active ice streams. If an ice stream operates solely by till deformation, it is conceivable that a progressive increase in the exposure of till-free areas could lead to shut-down through a process of sediment exhaustion. Areas of strong, well drained till have been identified beneath both active and ancient ice streams and are most likely to result from the reorganisation of subglacial meltwater. The collapse of an inefficient ‘cannalised’ system to a more efficient ‘channelised’ system can occur rapidly and this mechanism has been hypothesised as a candidate for ice stream shut-down in both contemporary and palaeo-settings. Basal freeze-on has also been observed and inferred from beneath modern and palaeo-ice streams, and a reduction in basal meltwater supply coupled with ice stream drawdown and the advection of cold ice increases the likelihood of switching off an ice stream. A paucity of data from ice stream sticky spots limits a better understanding of their nature, distribution and evolution beneath ice streams. Future technological advances are likely to improve the resolution of the data collected from the beds of modern ice streams but well-preserved palaeo-ice stream beds also hold potential for investigating their influence on ice stream flow and we present simple landsystems models to aid their identification. Such data will considerably enhance the basal boundary condition in ice stream models which will, ultimately, refine our predictions of the response of contemporary ice sheets to future changes in climate.     

Modeling ice sheets from the bottom up

Three facts should guide ice-sheet modeling. (1) Ice height above the bed is controlled by the strength of ice-bed coupling, reducing ice thickness by some 90 percent when coupling vanishes. (2) Ice-bed coupling vanishes along ice streams that end as floating ice shelves and drain up to 90 percent of an ice sheet. (3) Because of (1) and (2), ice sheets can rapidly collapse and disintegrate, thereby removing ice sheets from Earth's climate system and forcing abrupt climate change. The first model of ice-sheet dynamics was developed in Australia and applied to the present Antarctic Ice Sheet in 1970. It treated slow sheet flow, which prevails over some 90 percent of the ice sheet, but is the least dynamic component. The model made top-down calculations of ice velocities and temperatures, based on known surface conditions and an assumed basal geothermal heat flux. In 1972, Joseph Fletcher proposed a six-step research strategy for studying dynamic systems. The first step was identifying the most dynamic components, which for Antarctica are fast ice streams that discharge up to 90 percent of the ice. Ice-sheet models developed at the University of Maine in the 1970s were based on the Fletcher strategy and focused on ice streams, including calving dynamics when ice streams end in water. These models calculated the elevation of ice sheets based in the strength of ice-bed coupling. This was a bottom-up approach that lowered ice elevations some 90 percent when ice-bed coupling vanished. Top-down modeling is able to simulate changes in the size and shape of ice sheets through a whole glaciation cycle, provided the mass balance is treated correctly. Bottom-up modeling is able to produce accurate changes in ice elevations based on changes in ice-bed coupling, provided the force balance is treated correctly. Truly holistic ice-sheet models should synthesize top-down and bottom-up approaches by combining the mass balance with the force balance in ways that merge abrupt changes in stream flow with slow changes in sheet flow. Then discharging 90 percent of the ice by ice streams mobilizes 90 percent of the area so ice sheets can self-destruct, and thereby terminate a glaciation cycle.     

The Plio-Pleistocene glaciation of the Barents Sea–Svalbard region: a new model based on revised chronostratigraphy

Based on a revised chronostratigraphy, and compilation of borehole data from the Barents Sea continental margin, a coherent glaciation model is proposed for the Barents Sea ice sheet over the past 3.5 million years (Ma). Three phases of ice growth are suggested: (1) The initial build-up phase, covering mountainous regions and reaching the coastline/shelf edge in the northern Barents Sea during short-term glacial intensification, is concomitant with the onset of the Northern Hemisphere Glaciation (3.6–2.4 Ma). (2) A transitional growth phase (2.4–1.0 Ma), during which the ice sheet expanded towards the southern Barents Sea and reached the northwestern Kara Sea. This is inferred from step-wise decrease of Siberian river-supplied smectite-rich sediments, likely caused by ice sheet blockade and possibly reduced sea ice formation in the Kara Sea as well as glacigenic wedge growth along the northwestern Barents Sea margin hampering entrainment and transport of sea ice sediments to the Arctic–Atlantic gateway. (3) Finally, large-scale glaciation in the Barents Sea occurred after 1 Ma with repeated advances to the shelf edge. The timing is inferred from ice grounding on the Yermak Plateau at about 0.95 Ma, and higher frequencies of gravity-driven mass movements along the western Barents Sea margin associated with expansive glacial growth.     

Late Weichselian ice-sheet sensitivity over Franz Josef Land, Russian High Arctic, from numerical modelling experiments

A numerical ice-sheet model was run in order to produce reconstructions of the Late Weichselian ice coverage of Franz Josef Land, Russian High Arctic. The model grid covers the archipelago and surrounding shelf, but does not include the whole Barents-Kara region or the extensive ice cover that may have built up there. One experiment, where rates of iceberg calving at the grounded margin were curtailed because of the assumed presence of permanent thick sea ice, yielded a single I.8 km-thick ice dome which covered the entire archipelago and surrounding sea. If, however, iceberg calving were included in the model's environmental input, the extent of the ice sheet would be limited to the periphery of the archipelago. If a large ice sheet existed over Franz Josef Land, the deglaciation of the islands may have been linked to the decay of the adjacent Barents-Kara Sea Ice Sheet, permitting iceberg calving (enhanced by relative sea-level rise) to occur. The introduction of a water-depth-related iceberg calving function at 15 000 yr ago forced an initial rapid rate of ice-sheet decay of 30 000 km³ 1000 yr'. However, as the ice sheet thinned, and isostatic rebound began, the calculated rate of iceberg calving was reduced such that ice remained over the archipelago at 8000 yr ago. The model's failure to simulate complete ice-sheet decay by 8000 yr ago is at variance with radiocarbon-dated raised terraces on Franz Josef Land, which indicates the complete deglaciation of the islands at this time.     

Response of a marine ice sheet to changes at the grounding line

A numerical model was designed to study the stability of a marine ice sheet, and used to do some basic experiments. The ice-shelf/ice-sheet interaction enters through the flow law in which the longitudinal stress is also taken into account. Instead of applying the model to some (measured) profile and showing that this is unstable (as is common practice in other studies), an attempt is made to simulate a whole cycle of growth and retreat of a marine ice sheet, although none of the model sheets is particularly sensitive to changes in environmental conditions. The question as to what might happen to the West Antarctic Ice Sheet in the near future when a climatic warming can be expecied as a result of the CO₂ effect, seems to be open for discussion again. From the results presented in this paper one can infer that a collapse, caused by increased melting on the ice shelves, is not very likely.     

Reconstructing the basal thermal regime of an ice stream in a landscape of selective linear erosion: Glen Avon, Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland

The Cairngorm Mountain area of Scotland is a classic example of a landscape of selective linear glacial erosion, with sharp contrasts in the intensity of glacial erosion between the deeply incised troughs and valleys and the undulating high plateau. This article examines the Quaternary development of Glen Avon, a 200 m deep glacial trough set within the high plateau of the mountains. Evidence concerning the aggregate basal thermal regimes of the topographically controlled ice streams that formerly developed in this area is reconstructed from the geomorphological record, including bedforms indicative of wet-based, sliding ice and of dry-based ice frozen to its bed. This mapping indicates that basal sliding was not confined exclusively to the troughs but extended towards valley heads and on to parts of the plateau adjacent to troughs. The extent of basal sliding appears to have been greatest beneath pre-Late Devensian ice sheets. Basal ice temperatures are modelled under steady-state conditions for the last ice sheet at c. 18 ka BP. Basal thermal regimes are predicted using a reconstruction of the preglacial relief and for the current topography of the area. Convergent flow of ice through the preglacial valley system appears to have been sufficient to induce basal melting and therefore to initiate valley deepening. This effect is enhanced when the model is run across the present topography. Comparison of results of the geomorphological mapping and the modelling reveals significant differences between the actual and predicted extent of basal sliding outside the main ice stream. The overall conclusion is that many ice streams in mountainous terrain are inherited from the locations of preglacial valleys, which serve to accelerate ice flow and promote frictional heating beneath ice sheets.     

The ice/bed interface mosaic: deforming spots intervening with stable areas under the fringe of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet at Sampława,Poland

The glacial sediment succession exposed close to the southern margin of the Late Weichselian Scandinavian Ice Sheet in Poland reveals a mosaic consisting of isolated patches of heavily deformed deposits separated by areas lacking any visible evidence of deformation. In the studied outcrop, the subglacial deforming spots composed of outwash deposits intercalated with till stringers are about 2–10 m wide and 20–60 cm thick. They rest on outwash sediments and are covered by a basal till. Based on structural and textural characteristics, the deforming spots are interpreted as previous R‐channels filled with meltwater deposits. Lack of deformation in outwash sediment immediately beneath the deforming spots and in the intervening areas between the channels suggests that the ice‐bed was frozen and the deformation of the channel infill was facilitated by high pore‐water pressure arising because water drainage into the bed was impeded by permafrost. Channel infill deposits and the till immediately above were coevally deformed to a strain of less than 9. This study documents the possible co‐existence of deforming and stable areas under an ice sheet, generated by spatially varying thermal and hydrological conditions affecting sediment rheology.     

Drainage beneath ice sheets: groundwater–channel coupling,and the origin of esker systems from former ice sheets

The nature of the drainage system beneath ice sheets is crucial to their dynamic behaviour but remains problematic. An experimentally based theory of coupling between groundwater and major channel systems is applied to the esker systems in the area occupied the last ice sheet in Europe, which we regard as a fossil imprint of major longitudinal drainage channels. We conclude that the large-scale distribution and spacing of major eskers is consistent with the theory of groundwater control, in which esker spacing is partly controlled by the transmissivity of the bed.It is concluded that esker patterns reflect the large-scale organisation of the subglacial drainage pattern in which channel development is coupled to groundwater flow and to the ice sheet's dynamic regime. The theory is then used to deduce: basal meltwater recharge rates and their spatial variability from esker spacing in an area in which the ice sheet was actively streaming during its final retreat; patterns of palaeo-groundwater flow and head distribution; and the seasonally varying magnitude of discharge from stream tunnels at the retreating ice sheet margin. Major channel/esker systems appear to have been stable at least over several hundred of years during the retreat of the ice sheet, although major dynamic events are demonstrably associated with major shifts in the hydraulic regime.Modelling suggests: that glaciation can stimulate deep groundwater circulation cells that are spatially linked to channel locations, with groundwater flow predominantly transverse to ice flow; that the circulation pattern has the potential to create large-scale anomalies in groundwater chemistry; and that the spacing of channels will change through the glacial cycle, influencing water pressures in stream tunnels, subglacial hydraulic gradients and effective pressure. If the latter is reduced sufficiently, it could trigger enhanced bed deformation, thus coupling drainage to ice sheet movement. It suggests the possibility of distinctive phases of sediment deformation and drumlin mobilisation during a glacial cycle.     

Pattern,style and timing of British–Irish Ice Sheet advance and retreat over the last 45 000 years: evidence from NW Scotland and the adjacent continental shelf

Predicting the future response of ice sheets to climate warming and rising global sea level is important but difficult. This is especially so when fast-flowing glaciers or ice streams, buffered by ice shelves, are grounded on beds below sea level. What happens when these ice shelves are removed? And how do the ice stream and the surrounding ice sheet respond to the abruptly altered boundary conditions? To address these questions and others we present new geological, geomorphological, geophysical and geochronological data from the ice-stream-dominated NW sector of the last British–Irish Ice Sheet (BIIS). The study area covers around 45 000 km² of NW Scotland and the surrounding continental shelf. Alongside seabed geomorphological mapping and Quaternary sediment analysis, we use a suite of over 100 new absolute ages (including cosmogenic-nuclide exposure ages, optically stimulated luminescence ages and radiocarbon dates) collected from onshore and offshore, to build a sector-wide ice-sheet reconstruction combining all available evidence with Bayesian chronosequence modelling. Using this information we present a detailed assessment of ice-sheet advance/retreat history, and the glaciological connections between different areas of the NW BIIS sector, at different times during the last glacial cycle. The results show a highly dynamic, partly marine, partly terrestrial, ice-sheet sector undergoing large size variations in response to sub-millennial-scale climatic (Dansgaard–Oeschger) cycles over the last 45 000 years. Superimposed on these trends we identify internally driven instabilities, operating at higher frequency, conditioned by local topographic factors, tidewater dynamics and glaciological feedbacks during deglaciation. Specifically, our new evidence indicates extensive marine-terminating ice-sheet glaciation of the NW BIIS sector during Greenland Stadials 12 to 9 – prior to the main ‘Late Weichselian’ ice-sheet glaciation. After a period of restricted glaciation, in Greenland Interstadials 8 to 6, we find good evidence for rapid renewed ice-sheet build-up in NW Scotland, with the Minch ice-stream terminus reaching the continental shelf edge in Greenland Stadial 5, perhaps only briefly. Deglaciation of the NW sector took place in numerous stages. Several grounding-zone wedges and moraines on the mid- and inner continental shelf attest to significant stabilizations of the ice-sheet grounding line, or ice margin, during overall retreat in Greenland Stadials 3 and 2, and to the development of ice shelves. NW Lewis was the first substantial present-day land area to deglaciate, in the first half of Greenland Stadial 3 at a time of globally reduced sea-level c. 26 kabp , followed by Cape Wrath at c. 24 kabp. The topographic confinement of the Minch straits probably promoted ice-shelf development in early Greenland Stadial 2, providing the ice stream with additional support and buffering it somewhat from external drivers. However, c. 20–19 kabp , as the grounding-line migrated into shoreward deepening water, coinciding with a marked change in marine geology and bed strength, the ice stream became unstable. We find that, once underway, grounding-line retreat proceeded in an uninterrupted fashion with the rapid loss of fronting ice shelves – first in the west, then the east troughs – before eventual glacier stabilization at fjord mouths in NW Scotland by ~17 kabp. Around the same time, ~19–17 kabp , ice-sheet lobes readvanced into the East Minch – possibly a glaciological response to the marine-instability-triggered loss of adjacent ice stream (and/or ice shelf) support in the Minch trough. An independent ice cap on Lewis also experienced margin oscillations during mid-Greenland Stadial 2, with an ice-accumulation centre in West Lewis existing into the latter part of Heinrich Stadial 1. Final ice-sheet deglaciation of NW mainland Scotland was punctuated by at least one other coherent readvance at c. 15.5 kabp , before significant ice-mass losses thereafter. At the glacial termination, c. 14.5 kabp , glaciers fed outwash sediment to now-abandoned coastal deltas in NW mainland Scotland around the time of global Meltwater Pulse 1A. Overall, this work on the BIIS NW sector reconstructs a highly dynamic ice-sheet oscillating in extent and volume for much of the last 45 000 years. Periods of expansive ice-sheet glaciation dominated by ice-streaming were interspersed with periods of much more restricted ice-cap or tidewater/fjordic glaciation. Finally, this work indicates that the role of ice streams in ice-sheet evolution is complex but mechanistically important throughout the lifetime of an ice sheet – with ice streams contributing to the regulation of ice-sheet health but also to the acceleration of ice-sheet demise via marine ice-sheet instabilities.     

Numerical reconstructions of the Eurasian Ice Sheet and climate during the Late Weichselian

Geological investigations undertaken through the Quaternary Environments of the Eurasian North programme established ice-sheet limits for the Eurasian Arctic at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), sedimentary records of palaeo-ice streams and uplift information relating to ice-sheet configuration and the pattern of deglaciation. Ice-sheet numerical modelling was used to reconstruct a history of the Eurasian Ice Sheet compatible with these geological datasets. The result was a quantitative assessment of the time-dependent behaviour of the ice sheet, its mass balance and climate, and predictions of glaciological products including sediments, icebergs and meltwater. At the LGM, ice cover was continuous from Scandinavia to the Arctic Ocean margin of the Barents Sea to the north, and the Kara Sea to the east. In the west, along the continental margin between the Norwegian Channel and Svalbard, the ice sheet was characterised by fast flowing ice streams occupying bathymetric troughs, which fed large volumes of sediment to the continental margin that were deposited as a series of trough mouth fans. Ice streams may also have been present in bathymetric troughs to the north between Svalbard and Franz Josef Land. Further east, however, the ice sheet was thinner. Across the Kara Sea, the ice thickness was predicted to be less than 300 m, while on Severnaya Zemlya the ice cover may have been thinner at the LGM than at present. It is likely that the Taymyr Peninsula was mainly free of ice at the LGM. In the south, the ice margin was located close to the shoreline of the Russian mainland. The climate associated with this ice sheet is maritime to the west and, in stark contrast, desert-like in the east. Atmospheric General Circulation Modelling has revealed that such a contrast is possible under relatively warm north Atlantic conditions because a circulation system develops across the Kara Sea, isolating it from the moisture-laden westerlies, which are diverted to the south. Ice-sheet decay began through enhanced iceberg calving in the deepest regions of the Barents Sea, which caused a significant ice embayment within the Bear Island Trough. By about 12,000 years ago, further iceberg calving reduced ice extent to the northern archipelagos and their surrounding shallow seas. Ice decay was complete by about 10,000 years ago.     

No significant ice-sheet expansion beyond present ice margins during the past 4500 yr at Rauer Group, East Antarctica

The history of glacial advances and retreats of the East Antarctic ice sheet during the Holocene is not well-known, due to limited field evidence in both the marine and terrestrial realm. A 257-cm-long sediment core was recovered from a marine inlet in the Rauer Group, East Antarctica, 1.8 km in front of the present ice-sheet margin. Radiocarbon dating and lithological characteristics reveal that the core comprises a complete marine record since 4500 yr. A significant ice-sheet expansion beyond present ice margins therefore did not occur during this period.     

Modeling of groundwater flow at depth in crystalline rock beneath a moving ice-sheet margin, exemplified by the Fennoscandian Shield, Sweden

On-going geological disposal programs for spent nuclear fuel have generated strong demands for investigation and characterization of deep-lying groundwater systems. Because of the long time scales for which radiological safety needs to be demonstrated in safety assessment applications, an analysis of the hydrogeological performance of the geosphere system during glacial climate conditions is needed. Groundwater flow at depth in crystalline rock during the passage of an ice-sheet margin is discussed based on performed groundwater-flow modeling of two bedrock sites, Forsmark and Laxemar, in the Fennoscandian Shield, Sweden. The modeled ice sheet mimics the Weichselian ice sheet during its last major advance and retreat over northern Europe. The paper elaborates and analyzes different choices of top boundary conditions at the ice sheet–subsurface interface (e.g. ice-sheet thickness and ice-margin velocity) and in the proglacial area (presence or lack of permafrost) and relates these choices to available groundwater-flow-model hydraulic output and prevailing conceptual hydrogeochemical models of the salinity evolution at the two sites. It is concluded that the choice of boundary conditions has a strong impact on results and that the studied sites behave differently for identical boundary conditions due to differences in their structural-hydraulic properties.     

Reconstructing past glacier dynamics and erosion from glacial geomorphic evidence: Snowdon,North Wales

Bedrock surfaces exposed around Llyn Llydaw, North Wales demonstrate contrasting styles of erosion beneath a Late Devensian ice sheet and a Loch Lomond Stadial (LLS) valley glacier. Ice sheet erosion involved lee-side fracturing, surface fracture wear and abrasive wear, while LLS erosion was primarily by abrasive wear. Preservation of ice sheet erosional features indicates limited rates of erosion during the LLS. Analysis of the geometry and distribution of erosional markings suggests that the low erosional capacity of the LLS glacier was due to a low basal sliding velocity. This prevented the formation of lee-side cavities, reduced the debris flux over the bed and minimised particle-bed contact loads. Reconstructions of the mass balance and geometry of the LLS glacier indicate that most of its balance velocity could be achieved by internal deformation alone. A combination of low subglacial water pressures and an unusually rough substrate explain the low sliding velocities. High bed roughness is due to the absence of leeside cavities and a change in flow orientation between ice sheet and LLS times, which meant that the LLS glacier was in contact with roughness elements which were generated in cavities beneath the ice sheet.     

Origin of Pleistocene outwash plains in various topographic settings, southern Poland

The style of Pleistocene outwash sedimentation in the foreland of the central European Mountains (the Carpathians and Sudetes) was controlled to a large extent by the topography. The deposits of three outwash plains formed in various morphological situations in front of the Upper Odra Lobe during the Odranian glaciation (older Saalian) are described here to show the conditions of their development and to reveal the relation between outwash plain sedimentology and proglacial topography. One outwash plain was formed between the mountain front and the ice-sheet margin, which advanced into the zone of fore-mountain alluvial fans. This outwash, deposited parallel to the ice margin, was under the considerable influence of extraglacial rivers flowing from the mountains. The second outwash was deposited in a small valley dipping away from the ice sheet and successively buried by glaciofluvial sediments. It evolved from a narrow valley sandur to an unconfined outwash plain. The third one was formed in a relatively broad, dammed valley dipping towards the ice sheet, where proglacial lake base level controlled the pattern of outwash channels as well as the character of the sedimentation. The studied outwash plains have different sedimentary successions. Their sedimentary profiles differ from each other even in the neighbouring valleys, indicating that distinct depositional conditions existed at the same time in closely spaced areas. It is suggested that the glaciomarginal deposition was controlled mostly by the orientation of the valleys and the inter-valley areas relative to the ice-sheet front. Size and morphology of valleys and interfluves were also important. Depending on their orientation, the outwash plains were fed by meltwaters in various ways; the dip of their surfaces was markedly different and the dynamics of the proglacial river systems were diverse.