Mobilization and attenuation of heavy metals within a nickel mine tailings impoundment near Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

 The oxidation and the subsequent dissolution of sulfide minerals within the Copper Cliff tailings area have led to the release of heavy metals such as Fe, Ni, and Co to the tailings pore water. Dissolved concentrations in excess of 10 g/l Fe and 2.2 g/l Ni have been detected within the shallow pore water of the tailings, with increasing depth these concentrations decrease to or near analytical detection limits. Geochemical modelling of the pore-water chemistry suggests that pH-buffering reactions are occurring within the shallow oxidized zones, and that secondary phases are precipitating at or near the underlying hardpan and transition zones. Mineralogical study of the tailings confirmed the presence of goethite, jarosite, gypsum, native sulfur, and a vermiculite-type clay mineral. Goethite, jarosite, and native sulfur form alteration rims and pseudo-morphs of the sulfide minerals. Interstitial cements, composed of goethite, jarosite, and gypsum, locally bind the tailings particles, forming hardpan layers. Microprobe analyses of the goethite indicate that it contains up to 0.6 weight % Ni, suggesting that the goethite is a repository for Ni. Other sinks detected for heavy metals include jarosite and a vemiculite-type clay mineral which locally contains up to 1.6 weight % Ni. To estimate the mass and distribution of heavy metals associated with the secondary phases within the shallow tailings, a series of chemical extractions was completed. The experimental design permitted four fractions of the tailings to be evaluated independently. These four fractions consisted of a water-soluble, an acid-leachable, and a reducible fraction, as well as the whole-rock total. Twenty-five percent of the total mass of heavy metals was removed in the acid-leaching experiments, and 100% of the same components were removed in the reduction experiments. The data suggest that precipitation/coprecipitation reactions are providing an effective sink for most of the heavy metals released by sulfide mineral oxidation. In light of these results, potential decommissioning strategies should be evaluated with the recognition that changing the geochemical conditions may alter the stability of the secondary phases within the shallow tailings. Received: 9 April 1997 · Accepted: 21 July 1997     

Surface Mineralogy of Oxidized Pyrite by Acidithiobacillus Ferrooxidans

Sulfide oxidation by microbial activities play an important role in the release of heavy metals. An important source of contamination and formation of AMD is the heavy metals convey to soil, rivulet and groundwater. Pyrite is a commonly sulfide minerals in mine wastes, so it is vitally to prove up the microbial oxidation process.     

尾矿中硫化物风化氧化模拟实验研究

为防治矿山尾矿造成环境污染，对方铅矿，闪锌矿，磁黄铁矿、黄铜矿，黄铁矿进行了风化氧化实验研究，结果显示，硫化物的氧化速率顺序为：方铅矿＞闪锌矿＞磁黄铁矿＞黄铜矿＞黄铁矿，侵蚀液pH值越低，硫化物氧化速率越大，有机物存在对硫化物氧化起缓冲和抑制作用。     

Behavior of heavy metals in sulfide mine tailings and bottom sediment (Salair,Kemerovo region,Russia)

The given work focused on solving the problem of environmental geochemistry related to investigation of element speciation, their mobility, and migration in polluted areas. The purpose was to describe quantitatively migration, distribution, and redistribution of heavy metals by the example of the old tailings (Talmovaya sands) of the Lead Zinc Concentration Plant (Salair, Kemerovo region, Russia) and technogenic bottom sediments of the Malaya Talmovaya river. Contents of elements in the sulfide tailings range in the following limits: Zn: 1,100–27,000 ppm, Cd: 1.3–240 ppm, Pb: 0.01–0.81 ppm, Cu: 220–960 ppm, As: 15–970 ppm, Fe: 19,000–76,000 ppm, and Ba: 80,000–1,00,000 ppm. Element concentrations in the river sediment are proportional to the element contents in the sulfide tailings. Element speciations in the sulfide tailings and technogenic bottom sediments were investigated by the modified sequential extraction procedure. Chemical forms of heavy metals in pore water and surface water were calculated by WATEQ4F software. Principles of heavy metal migration in the sulfide tailings and technogenic bottom deposits were established. The obtained results about element species in the sulfide tailings and sediment explain the main principles of element migration and redeposition. In the mine waste and technogenic bottom deposits, there is vertical substance transformation with formation of geochemical barriers.     

湘西金矿尾矿-水相互作用:2.动力学模拟

从硫化物的氧化、脉石矿物的溶解、氧的扩散、水的流动和溶质质量迁移等过程的耦合作用建立了尾矿-水相互作用的动力学模型。对湖南湘西金矿尾矿库的数学模拟表明：早期尾矿-水的相互作用可以引起酸水的产生和重金属的释放及对环境的污染，影响较大的主要是前30年，随着时间增加，尾矿孔隙水逐渐中性化，污染元素含量显著降低。脉石矿物的溶解和有机物反应可降低尾矿中氧的扩散和产生酸的中和作用。尾矿库上部孔隙水中各组分含量明显高于尾矿库下部，并在约6m深处存在突变带。尾矿库的水文分带是导致地球化学分带的主要原因。     

缓冲期碳酸盐型尾矿重金属释放机制——柱淋滤实验研究

碳酸盐型尾矿在缓冲期/中性矿山废水(NMD)释放期的重金属污染问题易被忽视。本文以广西大厂锡石-硫化物尾矿作为研究对象,采用柱淋滤实验方法,探讨碳酸盐型尾矿在缓冲期重金属的释放机制,为此类型尾矿重金属污染的防治提供依据。实验结果表明,大厂尾矿在缓冲期(约7年,pH值为6. 6～8. 0)存在Sb、Zn、Cd、As(Pb)释放污染问题。在尾矿堆放初期(0. 5年,pH值由7. 6降至7. 2),Zn、Sb、Cd快速、大量释出;中期(0. 5～2. 5年,pH值由7. 2波动升高至8. 0),Sb较平稳释出;后期(2. 5～7年,pH值变化范围为8. 0～6. 6,呈降低趋势),受气温及pH值影响,As、Sb(Pb)呈波动或间歇振荡释出,即在夏季高温、pH值较高时,释出元素浓度较高,反之,在冬季低温、pH值较低时,释出元素浓度较低。重金属的释放与尾矿中硫化物的氧化程度高低及氧化先后顺序有关。这些矿物的氧化顺序大致为:闪锌矿(Zn、Cd)、辉锑锡铅矿(Sb)→脆硫锑铅矿(Sb)→毒砂(As)、方铅矿(Pb)。因此,对于(广西大厂)碳酸盐型尾矿在缓冲期的重金属污染应分阶段、季节(夏季),采取有针对性的防治措施;在缓冲期(7年)后应注意尾矿酸性矿山废水(AMD)+重金属(如As、Sb)复合污染的防治。     

华南地区含硫化物金属矿山生态环境中的重金属元素地球化学迁移模型——重点对粤北大宝山铁铜多金属矿山的观察

粤北大宝山是华南金属成矿带的大型铁铜、铅、锌、钼等多金属综合性矿床,富含硫化物,位于北江支流横石河的上游分水岭,流域封闭性很好。矿山开发引起横石河下游的上坝村成为远近闻名的"癌症"村,部分村民出现"痛痛病"疑似症状。由于其特殊的地理位置和对下游引发的严重污染,该矿山成为研究湿热地区含硫化物金属矿山重金属元素生态-环境地球化学迁移的理想场所。以Zn为例,该矿山重金属元素从矿体中向生物体迁移过程经过尾砂/水反应界面、水/沉积物反应界面、土壤/间隙水溶液界面和土壤/植物界面4个重要的反应界面。其中,尾砂/水反应界面控制重金属从源头尾砂中的释放;水/沉积物反应界面控制重金属在水体中与河流沉积物的沉淀与释放的平衡;土壤/间隙水溶液界面控制土壤生物有效性;土壤/植物界面控制生物对重金属的吸收与利用。4个界面的介质间相互作用较好地刻画大宝山矿山因为开采,重金属元素从内生环境中曝露出来,然后在表生环境中释放、迁移、转化、归宿的迁移模式。上述认识对矿山重金属污染治理具有重要的指导意义。通过改变重金属迁移反应界面的条件,可以阻断矿山元素的迁移,达到污染治理的目的。     

金川镍矿尾矿砂中Ni和Cu赋存状态研究

金川镍矿浮选尾矿数量巨大,含有相当可观的有价金属,其中有价金属的回收受到越来越多的关注。金川老尾矿库尾矿砂中Ni和Cu赋存状态复杂,水溶性矿物态、可交换离子态、碳酸盐态、结晶度较差的Fe氧化物态、结晶度较好的Fe氧化物态、硫化物态和残渣态中都含有数量不等的有价金属Ni和Cu;尾矿砂风化作用释放的金属阳离子大多数在发生氧化的硫化物位置原位发生水解沉淀形成次生矿物,有价金属Ni和Cu在尾矿库中没有发生明显的富集。金川镍矿尾矿砂中Ni和Cu适于用化学酸溶浸出的方法进行二次回收。     

Mineralogical and geochemical alteration of Hitura sulphide mine tailings with emphasis on nickel mobility and retention

Weathering of Hitura (W Finland) nickel sulphide mine tailings and release of heavy metals into pore water was studied with mineralogical (optical and electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction) and geochemical methods (selective extractions). Tailings were composed largely of serpentine, micas and amphiboles with only minor carbonates and sulphides. Sulphides, especially pyrrhotite, have oxidized intensively in the shallow tailings in 10–15 years, but a majority of the tailings have remained unchanged. Oxidation has resulted in depletion of carbonates, slightly decreased pH, and heavy metal (Ni, Zn) release in pore water as well as in the precipitation of secondary Fe precipitates. Nevertheless, in the middle of the tailings area, where the oxidation front moves primarily downward, released heavy metals have been adsorbed and immobilized with these precipitates deeper in the oxidation zone. In contrast to what was seen in pore water pH, but in accordance with static tests of the previous studies, the neutralisation potential ratio (NPR) calculated based on the mineralogical composition and the total sulphur content suggested that tailings are ‘not potentially acid mine drainage (AMD) generating’. However, the calculated buffering capacity of the tailings resulted largely from the abundant serpentine because of the low carbonate content. Despite its slow weathering rate, serpentine may buffer the acidity to some extent through ion exchange processes in fine ground tailings. Nevertheless, in practice, acid production capacity of the tailings depends primarily on the balance between Ca–Mg carbonates and iron sulphides. NPR calculation based on carbonate and sulphur contents suggested, that the Hitura tailings are ‘likely AMD generating’. The study shows that sulphide oxidation can be significant in mobilisation of heavy metals even in apparently non-acid producing, low sulphide tailings. Therefore, prevention of oxygen diffusion into tailings is also essential in this type of sulphide tailings.     

Role of carbonates in mitigation of metal release from mining waste. Evidence from humidity cells tests

 Leaching of two contrasting types of sulphidic tailings in humidity cells has been performed. The release of heavy metals and the oxidation rate have been studied. Tailings from the Laver mine contain a few percent sulphides and lack carbonates, whereas tailings from the Stekenjokk mine are both sulphide- and carbonate-rich. The results showed that in the leachates from the Laver samples, the metal concentrations increased and pH decreased with time, indicating an increased oxidation rate. In the Stekenjokk samples, pH remained high during the experiment, thereby keeping the metal concentrations low in the leachates. The oxidation rate also decreased with time, probably due to Fe-hydroxide coatings on sulphide surfaces. The results show that addition of carbonates and the maintenance of a high pH not only reduce the solubility of heavy metals, but also decrease the oxidation rate of sulphides. Received: 20 January 1998 · Accepted: 2 April 1998     

The Weathering Effects of Acidithiobacillus Ferrooxidans to Cu(Ⅱ) Pollution of Fine Grained Copper Mine Tailings

China has accumulated massive fine grained copper mine tailings stocks because of the past mining activities in this area. The tailings contain a variety of heavy metals, and the mass percent of Cu, which is one of the main contaminants in tailings, is up to 0.2601% (analysis by XRF). The Cu can pollute soil and groundwater by rain leaching in the form of Cu(Ⅱ), furthermore ,the fine grained copper-ore-tailings can contaminant larger area by wind for its small granularity ( < 74 μm). The main cause of weathering of mine tailings is due to oxidative dissolution of sulfides. Microorganisms, such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, play an important role in weathering. These bacteria attach to exposed to mineral surfaces by excreting extracellular polymers and oxidize the sulfide mineral. Some of these bacteria also oxidize Fe2+ to Fe3+ which can chemically oxidize sulfide minerals. These reactions produce voluminous quantities of acid mine drainage and heavy metals which are harmful to the environment and human healthy. This study aims at finding the weathering effects of A. ferrooxidans to Cu(II) pollution of fine grained copper mine tailings, and our experiment applied indigenous A. ferrooxidans FJ-01 to leach the tailings. The optimum test parameters were obtained using shaking flask experiment and SEM observation under the following experimental conditions: 39 days residence time, pulp density 1%-15% (1%, 5% and 15%), 30℃, 120 rpm, pH between 1-3 and redox potential between 400-650 mV. The test results show that the leaching rate of Cu reached 43.1% when the pulp density was 1% after 33 days and kept invariant till the end of the test. In addition, the leaching rate of Cu will decrease as the increase of pulp density, and the maximum rate of 15% pulp density was only 12.5%. From the SEM, it can be seen that the fine grain of tailings flocculated to conglobation under the action of bacterial leaching.     

河北邯邢铁矿区矿山环境生态地球化学评价

在河北邯邢西石门及周边铁矿区系统地采集了各类生态环境地球化学样品,包括土壤(n=242)、玉米(n=110)、地表水(n=37)、地下水(n=31)和水系沉积物(n=81)。通过对矿区各样品元素含量特征和元素富集程度的研究,利用区域地球化学基准值和地质累积指数定量评价了矿山污染扰动程度。研究表明,矿区土壤、玉米、地表水、地下水、水系沉积物中相对富集较高的与成矿作用有关的元素及主要的伴生元素,部分重金属元素超标,土壤和水系沉积物中Se、As、Cd、Cu、As、Cd、Cu、Co元素超标,玉米中F、Cr、Cd元素接近食品卫生限值,地表水和地下水部分指标浓度接近三类水质限值。研究表明,造成污染的主要来源是铁矿尾矿沙和煤矸石中的硫化物发生氧化作用,导致重金属淋滤转移,另一来源是燃煤降尘的积聚。     

Release,transport and attenuation of metals from an old tailings impoundment

The oxidation of sulfide minerals from mine wastes results in the release of oxidation products to groundwater and surface water. The abandoned high-sulfide Camp tailings impoundment at Sherridon, Manitoba, wherein the tailings have undergone oxidation for more than 70 a, was investigated by hydrogeological, geochemical, and mineralogical techniques. Mineralogical analysis indicates that the unoxidized tailings contain nearly equal proportions of pyrite and pyrrhotite, which make up to 60 wt% of the total tailings, and which are accompanied by minor amounts of chalcopyrite and sphalerite, and minute amounts of galena and arsenopyrite. Extensive oxidation in the upper 50 cm of the tailings has resulted in extremely high concentrations of dissolved SO₄ and metals and As in the tailings pore water (pH < 1, 129,000 mg L⁻¹ Fe, 280,000 mg L⁻¹ SO₄, 55,000 mg L⁻¹ Zn, 7200 mg L⁻¹ Al, 1600 mg L⁻¹ Cu, 260 mg L⁻¹ Mn, 110 mg L⁻¹ Co, 97 mg L⁻¹ Cd, 40 mg L⁻¹ As, 15 mg L⁻¹ Ni, 8 mg L⁻¹ Pb, and 3 mg L⁻¹ Cr). The acid released from sulfide oxidation has been extensive enough to deplete carbonate minerals to 6 m depth and to partly deplete Al-silicate minerals to a 1 m depth. Below 1 m, sulfide oxidation has resulted in the formation of a continuous hardpan layer that is >1 m thick. Geochemical modeling and mineralogical analysis indicate that the hardpan layer consists of secondary melanterite, rozenite, gypsum, jarosite, and goethite. The minerals indicated mainly control the dissolved concentrations of SO₄, Fe, Ca and K. The highest concentrations of dissolved metals are observed directly above and within the massive hardpan layer. Near the water table at a depth of 4 m, most metals and SO₄ sharply decline in concentration. Although dissolved concentrations of metals and SO₄ decrease below the water table, these concentrations remain elevated throughout the tailings, with up to 60,600 mg L⁻¹ Fe and 91,600 mg L⁻¹ SO₄ observed in the deeper groundwater. During precipitation events, surface seeps develop along the flanks of the impoundment and discharge pore water with a geochemical composition that is similar to the composition of water directly above the hardpan. These results suggest that shallow lateral flow of water from a transient perched water table is resulting in higher contaminant loadings than would be predicted if it were assumed that discharge is derived solely from the deeper primary water table. The abundance of residual sulfide minerals, the depletion of aluminosilicate minerals in the upper meter of the tailings and the presence of a significant mass of residual sulfide minerals in this zone after 70 a of oxidation suggest that sulfide oxidation will continue to release acid, metals, and SO₄ to the environment for decades to centuries.     

Hydrogeochemistry and microbiology of mine drainage: An update

The extraction of mineral resources requires access through underground workings, or open pit operations, or through drillholes for solution mining. Additionally, mineral processing can generate large quantities of waste, including mill tailings, waste rock and refinery wastes, heap leach pads, and slag. Thus, through mining and mineral processing activities, large surface areas of sulfide minerals can be exposed to oxygen, water, and microbes, resulting in accelerated oxidation of sulfide and other minerals and the potential for the generation of low-quality drainage. The oxidation of sulfide minerals in mine wastes is accelerated by microbial catalysis of the oxidation of aqueous ferrous iron and sulfide. These reactions, particularly when combined with evaporation, can lead to extremely acidic drainage and very high concentrations of dissolved constituents. Although acid mine drainage is the most prevalent and damaging environmental concern associated with mining activities, generation of saline, basic and neutral drainage containing elevated concentrations of dissolved metals, non-metals, and metalloids has recently been recognized as a potential environmental concern. Acid neutralization reactions through the dissolution of carbonate, hydroxide, and silicate minerals and formation of secondary aluminum and ferric hydroxide phases can moderate the effects of acid generation and enhance the formation of secondary hydrated iron and aluminum minerals which may lessen the concentration of dissolved metals. Numerical models provide powerful tools for assessing impacts of these reactions on water quality.     

四川拉拉铜矿尾矿中重金属资源和环境意义

尾矿中高含量重金属具有潜在的资源和环境意义。通过分析拉拉铜矿尾矿中的重金属含量及其赋存形式,讨论了尾矿中有价元素的回收利用可能性,并评价了尾矿中重金属的生态风险。结果表明,拉拉铜矿各期尾矿中仅Ⅲ期尾矿的铁、铜、钴具有综合利用价值;各期尾矿中多种重金属元素潜在的生态危害程度轻微,但是各期尾矿中汞的生态危害程度中等,Ⅲ期尾矿中铜的生态危害程度中等。因此,矿区不仅要注意各期尾矿汞对环境的潜在污染,同时也应注意Ⅲ期尾矿铜对环境污染的生态风险。     

湖北大冶铜绿山尾矿的地球化学特征及其综合利用

对尾矿进行深入细致的研究, 认真分析其物理化学组成将为矿山环境的治理以及尾矿的综合利用提供重要的科学依据.探讨了铜绿山矽卡岩型铜铁矿床尾矿砂的矿物组合特征和地球化学特征, 初步研究了稀硫酸溶液萃取尾矿砂中有价金属元素方法的可行性.研究结果表明: 尾矿砂先后经过化学冶选和长期堆存风化, 矿物组成发生显著改变, 以粘土矿物(高岭石和伊利石)为主; 尾矿中的铜矿物以氧化铜为主, 尾矿砂中金属元素的活动性明显增强, 含量从顶部到第6层逐渐增加, 并在尾砂库的第6层强烈富集, 重金属铜具有回收利用的价值.      

Mineralogical and geochemical behavior of mill tailing material produced from lead-zinc skarn mineralization,Hanover, Grant County,New Mexico,USA

Mineral extraction and processing, especially metal mining, produces crushed and milled waste; such material, exposed to weathering, poses the potential threat of environmental contamination. In this study, mill tailings from inactive Pb-Zn mines in New Mexico, southwest USA, have been examined for their potential environmental impacts by means of detailed mineralogical and geochemical characterization. The principal ore minerals remaining in the tailings material are sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and very minor galena, smithsonite, and cerrusite, accompanied by the gangue minerals pyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, hematite, garnet, pyroxene, quartz, and calcite. White precipitate occurring on tailings surfaces is composed of gypsum and hydrated magnesium sulfates. Pyrite is mostly unaltered or shows only micron-scale rims of oxidation (goethite/hematite) in some surface samples. This iron oxide rim on pyrite is the only indication of weathering-derived minerals found by microscopy. There are variations in element concentrations with depth that reflect primary variations through time as the tailings ponds were filled. Cadmium and Zn concentrations increase with depth and Ag and Pb are low for the uppermost core samples, while Cu, Ni, and Co concentrations are generally high for the uppermost core samples. These elemental distributions indicate that little or no leaching has taken place since emplacement of the tailings because no accumulation or enrichment of these metals is observed in Hanover tailings, even in reducing portions of tailings piles. Element concentrations of surface samples surrounding the tailings reflect underlying mineralized zones rather than tailings-derived soil contamination. We observed no successive decreasing metal concentrations in prevalent wind directions away from the tailings. Stream sediment samples from Hanover Creek have somewhat elevated Zn, Cd, and Pb concentrations in areas that receive sediments from erosion of the tailings. However, input from tributaries downstream of the ponds appears to be principal source of heavy metals in Hanover Creek. The results of this study indicate that there is low risk for groundwater heavy-metal contamination from Hanover tailings. Tailings material do not show significant geochemical oxidation/alteration or metal leaching with depth. Our studies indicate that neutralizing minerals present in the tailings are sufficient to keep the tailings material chemically stable. Geochemically, however, tailings materials are being eroded and may pose a threat to Hanover Creek via siltation.     

湘西金矿尾矿—水相互作用：1．环境地球化学效应

湘西金矿在生产过程中产生了大量的尾矿。该区尾矿－水相互作用强烈，并引起了尾矿中重金属元素的释放、迁移和对水体－土壤、蔬菜等表生环境的重金属污染。污染程度较大的元素均为Au、Sb、As、Cd、Hg、W等，与尾矿中元素的富集特征相一致。尾矿中重金属元素的水迁移能力由大到小顺序为Au、Cd、W、Sb、Pb、As、Zn、Cu。元素的生物吸收系数由大至小顺序为Cd、Au、Zn、Hg、Sb、Cu、Pb、As、W。植物中金属元素浓度主要受土壤中的浓度、植物种类和吸收的影响。     

Pyrite Oxidation in Leaching Process of Radionuclides and Heavy Metals from Uranium Mill Tailings

Pyrite is a sensitive mineral in the geological environment,and its oxidation produces an important geochemical and environmental effect on the control of the redox and pH conditions.Column experiment results were used for modeling the geochemical processes in uranium mill tailings under leac-hing conditions.Oxidation of pyrite dominates the control of the tailings leaching process.The experi-mental and modeling results show that the leachate chemistry changes substantially with the decrease in pyrite consumption.In the initial stage of the leaching experiment,the pyrite is consumed several hun-dred times grater than that in the later stages,for much more oxygen is present in the tailings in the ini-tial stage.As the experiment continues,the tailings is gradually saturated with water and the oxygen concentration greatly decreases and so does pyrite consumption.The experimental and modeling results are useful for the design of mill tailing decommissioning:oxidation process and transport of radioactive nuclides and heavy metals can be constrained by controlling the oxygen concentration of tailings and the infiltration of meteoric water.     

Environmental geochemistry of the Guanajuato Mining District, Mexico

The Guanajuato Mining District, once one of the major silver producers in the world, has been exploited for silver and gold from low-sulfidation quartz- and calcite-rich epithermal veins since 1548. Currently, there are some 150 million tonnes of low-grade ore piles and mine-waste material (mostly tailings) piles, covering a surface area of 15 to 20 km² scattered in a 100-km² region around the city of Guanajuato. Most of the historic tailings piles were not deposited as formal tailings impoundments. They were deposited as simple valley-filling piles without concern for environmental issues. Most of those historical tailings piles are without any vegetation cover and undergo strong eolian and hydrologic erosion, besides the natural leaching during the rainy season (which can bring strong thunderstorms and flash flows). There is public concern about possible contamination of the local aquifer with heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, As and Se) derived from the mining activities.Experimental and field data from this research provide strong geochemical evidence that most of the mine-waste materials derived from the exploitation of the epithermal veins of the region have very low potential for generation of acid mine drainage due to the high carbonate/sulfide ratio (12:1), and very low potential for leaching of heavy metals into the groundwater system. Furthermore, geochemical evidence (experimental and modeled) indicates that natural processes, like metal adsorption onto Fe-oxy-hydroxides surfaces, control the mobility of dissolved metals. Stable isotope data from surface water, groundwater wells (150-m depth) and mine-water (300- to 500-m depth) define an evaporation line (δD=5.93 δ¹⁸O=13.04), indicating some deep infiltration through a highly anisotropic aquifer with both evaporated water (from the surface reservoirs) and meteoric water (not evaporated). Zinc concentrations in groundwater (0.03 to 0.5 ppm) of the alluvial aquifer, some 15 km from the mineralized zone, are generally higher than Zn concentrations in experimental tailings leachates that average less than 0.1 ppm. Groundwater travel time from the mineralized area to the alluvial valley is calculated to range from 50 to several hundred years. Thus, although there has been enough time for Zn sourced from the tailings to reach the valley, Zn concentrations in valley groundwater could be due to natural dissolution processes in the deep portions of the epithermal veins.