Investigation of Cement–Bentonite Slurry Samples Containing PFA in the UCS and Triaxial Apparatus

Three mixtures of cement–bentonite slurry containing 28, 36 and 44 % PFA (as a proportion of cementitious materials) were tested using the unconfined compressive strength and triaxial apparatus to determine the stress–strain and shear strength relationships for samples cured for various periods. The samples were batched using 4 % bentonite and 20 % cementitious materials (by mass of water) and allowed to cure underwater once extruded from sealed moulds. Curing periods of 14, 28 and 90 days were selected to investigate the changes in behaviour at durations commonly specified (28 and 90 days) as well as providing insight into changing behaviour with curing (additional curing periods of 7 and 60 days were investigated on a smaller number of samples to increase understanding). Two rates of displacement were used (1.0 and 1.3 mm/min) and four confining pressures (0, 50, 100 and 200 kPa). Shear strength and strain at peak deviator stress of the samples do not appear to vary considerably with confining pressure. For samples containing 28 % PFA, the majority of physical properties exhibited by the cement–bentonite samples change with curing period up to 60 days, where after the properties become similar to those cured for 90 days.     

Portland Cement Stabilization of Soil–Bentonite for Vertical Cutoff Walls Against Diesel Oil Contaminant

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of water-cement ratio and cement content on the hydraulic behavior of soil–cement–bentonite (SCB) and soil–bentonite (SB) mixtures permeated with water and diesel oil, to assist with the design of vertical cutoff walls constructed with those mixtures. The experimental program included unconfined compression tests, hydraulic conductivity tests and X-ray diffraction analysis. The test results indicated changes in hydraulic conductivity take place due to the variation of the water-cement ratio and permeant fluid. The hydraulic conductivity of the SB mixtures permeated with diesel oil was higher than the hydraulic conductivity of the same samples permeated with water. X-ray diffraction analyses suggest that this might be due to the decrease in double layer thickness and increase of seepage pore space imparted by diesel oil permeation. Conversely, Portland cement addition increased the hydraulic conductivity of the SCB specimens permeated with water, whereas subsequent diesel oil permeation reduced the hydraulic conductivity of the SCB specimens; this might be due to the relatively lower impact imparted by diesel permeation on the double layer characteristics of the bentonite stabilized with Portland cement.     

Deformation Mechanism and Stability of a Rocky Slope

A high slope is located on the side of the spillway at a hydropower station in Southwest China, which has some weak inter-layers inclining outwards. Parts of the slope show heavy weathering and unloading. There appeared deformation and tensile crack either on the surface or on the afteredge of the slope during excavation, and under a platform （elev. 488 m）, two levels of slopes collapsed on the downriver side. Based on the investigation in situ and the analysis of the geological structure, the conceptual model of deformation and failure mechanism was erected for this slope. Furthermore, the deformation characteristics were studied with FLAC^3D numerical simulation. Comprehensive analysis shows that the whole deformation of the slope is unloading rebound in certain depth scope and the whole body does not slide along any weak interlayer. In addition, two parts with prominent local deformation in the shallow layer of the slope show the models of ＂creep sfiding-tensile cracking＂ and ＂slidlng-tensile cracking＂, respectively. Based on the above analysis, the corresponding project of support and reinforcement is proposed to make the slope more stable.     

Cyclic Swell–Shrink Behaviour of a Compacted Expansive Soil

Laboratory cyclic swell–shrink tests were carried out on compacted expansive soil specimens to study in detail the effect of changes in shrinkage pattern on the swell–shrink behaviour of compacted expansive soils. Compacted soil specimens were allowed to swell and either shrank fully or partially shrank to several predetermined heights in each cycle. The tests were carried out at a surcharge pressure of 50 kPa. The test results revealed that shrinkage of compacted saturated soil specimens to predetermined height in each shrinkage cycle provides similar conditions as that of the controlled suction tests with an increasing number of swell–shrink cycles. The water content of soil specimens and hence soil suction was found to remain nearly constant for each pattern of shrinkage. For soil specimens equilibrated to a given swell–shrink pattern, suction at the end of shrinkage cycles was changed from a higher suction to a lower suction, and also from a lower to a higher suction. The experimental results showed that there may be an immediate equilibrium state attained by the soil in terms of swell–shrink potential if suction at the shrinkage cycles was less than the past suction; otherwise, the equilibrium state was accompanied by fatigue of swelling. The volumetric deformation of the soil specimen subjected greater shrinkage was found to be much larger than the corresponding vertical deformation. The compressibility index of microstructure, κ_m, was determined for several shrinkage patterns. It is shown that κ_m is heavily influenced by suction at the end of shrinkage cycles.     

Experimental Assessment of the Stress–Strain Behaviour of Leighton Buzzard Sand for the Calibration of a Constitutive Model

A number of constitutive models are nowadays implemented in numerical codes which simulate the stress–strain behaviour of soil from very small to large strain. In this paper, the mechanical behaviour of Leighton Buzzard sand (grade E), used worldwide for physical modelling, has been thoroughly characterized by laboratory testing along several stress paths. Tests were aimed at calibrating a constitutive model, that allows considering stiffness nonlinearities in a wide range of strains, in the framework of isotropically hardening plasticity. As a validation, the results of dynamic centrifuge tests on a layer of the same sand were compared with finite element predictions.     

Evaluation of Engineering and Cement–Stabilization Parameters of Clayey–Sand Mixtures under Soaked Conditions

Clay soils, especially clay soils of high or very high swelling potential often present difficulties in construction operations. However, the engineering properties of these clay soils can be enhanced by the addition of cement, thereby producing an improved construction material. Higher strength loss of cement stabilized clay soils after soaking in water is attributed to water absorbing capacity of the clay fraction (e.g. montmorillonite). Kaolinite and illitic soils are largely inert and resist to water penetration. These clays generally develop satisfactory strengths resulting to low strength reduction [Croft, 1967]. The swelling clays such as bentonite soaked in water, due to environmental conditions, result to volume increase causing macro and micro-fracturing in engineering structures. These fractures accelerate water penetration and consequently cause greater strength loss [Sällfors and Öberg-Högsta, 2002]. The water intrusion during soaking creates swelling and disrupts the cement bonds. The development of internal and external force systems in soil mass, due to soaking conditions, establish the initiation of slaking. Internal force system of a stabilized clayey soil consists of the resultant stresses established by the bonding potential of a cementing agent and the swelling potential of a clay fraction. In an effort to study this influence of soaking conditions and final absorbed water content on the stabilization parameters (cement, compaction, curing time), both unconfined compressive strength and slaking (durability) tests were carried out on two different cement stabilized clayey mixtures consisted of active bentonite, kaolin and sand.     

Physical and Compaction Behaviour of Clay Soil–Fly Ash Mixtures

At present, nearly 100 million tonnes of fly ash is being generated annually in India posing serious health and environmental problems. To control these problems, the most commonly used method is addition of fly ash as a stabilizing agent usually used in combination with soils. In the present study, high-calcium (ASTM Class C—Neyveli fly) and low-calcium (ASTM Class F—Badarpur fly ash) fly ashes in different proportions by weight (10, 20, 40, 60 and 80 %) were added to a highly expansive soil [known as black cotton (BC) soil] from India. Laboratory tests involved determination of physical properties, compaction characteristics and swell potential. The test results show that the consistency limits, compaction characteristics and swelling potential of expansive soil–fly ash mixtures are significantly modified and improved. It is seen that 40 % fly ash content is the optimum quantity to improve the plasticity characteristics of BC soil. The fly ashes exhibit low dry unit weight compared to BC soil. With the addition of fly ash to BC soil the maximum dry unit weight (γ_dmax) of the soil–fly ash mixtures decreases with increase in optimum moisture content (OMC), which can be mainly attributed to the improvement in gradation of the fly ash. It is also observed that 10 % of Neyveli fly ash is the optimum amount required to minimize the swell potential compared to 40 % of Badarpur fly ash. Therefore, the main objective of the study was to study the effect of fly ashes on the physical, compaction, and swelling potential of BC soils, and bulk utilization of industrial waste by-product without adversely affecting the environment.     

Groundwater–river interaction and management in the context of inter-basin transfers

This study is focused on the management of coupled groundwater–river interaction (GRI) in the context of inter-basin transfers. The semi-coupled models, HEC-RAS and MODFLOW, were utilized in this study to replicate the River Tees experiment that had been conducted in 1976. Then the ‘surrogate’ models were applied to two “what if” scenarios in order to understand and manage GRI behavior and the nature of the reservoir control system. The results on the River Tees showed that the total temporary bankside storage volume was up to 17.5 % of the total reservoir release, given about 22 h of travel time. In addition, zones 4 and 5 of the river model with significant alluvium deposits were the best storage sites with values of 4.5 and 6.7 % of the total reservoir release, respectively, estimated as temporary losses. The final direct runoff received downstream at broken scar was about 95 % of the Cow Green total reservoir release. Furthermore, the closure rate proved to be vital to compute the effective return flow in respect of this study area. Finally, with careful reservoir and groundwater management, the River Tees proved to be an ideal natural aqueduct for inter-basin transfers when used as part of a major regional water resources scheme.     

Compression of α-MnS (alabandite) and a new high-pressure phase

The compressibility of -Mns (alabandite) was determined by x-ray analysis using a Mao-Bell type diamond anvil cell. The zero pressure bulk modulus (K₀) is 74±2 GPa with the pressure derivative of the bulk modulus (K_o) fixed at four. Allowing (K_o) to vary yielded a statistically better fit with K₀ = 88±6 GPa and k₀ = 2.2±0.6. Our data combined with the data of McCammon (1991) gave K_o = 73±1 GPa with k_o fixed at four. A fit with k_o allowed to vary yielded k_o = 75±2 GPa and k_o = 3.7±0.4. Alabandite transformed from the B1 structure (NaCl-type) to an unknown high-pressure phase at 26 GPa. The high-pressure phase has lower than hexagonal symmetry and it is stable to at least 46±4 GPa.Also affiliated with the James Franck Institute, University of Chicago     

Relativistic Metrology of Near-Earth Space–Time and Its Practical Applications

Astronomy Reports - Results of studies of relativistic effects for the time and frequency shifts for an Earth–satellite system of atomic clocks, and also for moving clocks on the Earth, are...     

Paleogene Deformation and its Control Mechanism in the Central Part of Raoyang SagEI北大核心CSCD

Various Palaeogenic deformations have been recognized in the central part of the Raoyang Sag. Based on seismic interpretation, the sedimentary sequences, structure features and activity of main faults have been studied. The results show that the Xianxian detachment fault, which is located in the eastern boundary of the Raoyang Sag, was still active during the Cenozoic and controlled the basinal deformation. The detachment depth and deformation of the Xianxian detachment fault are discussed based on the area-balance theory. The results reveal that patterns of the Paleogene structures vary considerably from the north to the south. Activity of the main faults in the hanging wall of the Xianxian detachment led to a westward migration of the deposition center. On the other hand, the uplifting of the dome related to the detachment resulted in fast denudation of the overlying sediments in locals. The deformation of detachment fault and activities of the major faults controlled the Paleogene deformation in the central part of the Raoyang Sag. © 2018, Science Press. All right reserved.     

Water–Rock Interactions: An Investigation of the Relationships Between Mineralogy and Groundwater Composition and Flow in a Subtropical Basalt Aquifer

A holistic study of the composition of the basalt groundwaters of the Atherton Tablelands region in Queensland, Australia was undertaken to elucidate possible mechanisms for the evolution of these very low salinity, silica- and bicarbonate-rich groundwaters. It is proposed that aluminosilicate mineral weathering is the major contributing process to the overall composition of the basalt groundwaters. The groundwaters approach equilibrium with respect to the primary minerals with increasing pH and are mostly in equilibrium with the major secondary minerals (kaolinite and smectite), and other secondary phases such as goethite, hematite, and gibbsite, which are common accessory minerals in the Atherton basalts. The mineralogy of the basalt rocks, which has been examined using X-ray diffraction and whole rock geochemistry methods, supports the proposed model for the hydrogeochemical evolution of these groundwaters: precipitation + CO₂ (atmospheric + soil) + pyroxene + feldspars + olivine yields H₄SiO₄, HCO₃ ⁻, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺ + kaolinite and smectite clays + amorphous or crystalline silica + accessory minerals (hematite, goethite, gibbsite, carbonates, zeolites, and pyrite). The variations in the mineralogical content of these basalts also provide insights into the controls on groundwater storage and movement in this aquifer system. The fresh and weathered vesicular basalts are considered to be important in terms of zones of groundwater occurrence, while the fractures in the massive basalt are important pathways for groundwater movement.     

Groundwater–wetlands interaction in coastal lagoon of Almería (SE Spain)

Water resources management in coastal wetlands requires the degree of interdependence between groundwater and terrestrial ecosystems to be known. This is especially so in semiarid areas where surface inflows are restricted, marine influence is marked and the evaporation rate is high. Thus, chemistry of surface waters is very variable in the Cerrillos-Punta Entinas wetlands system. Using classical hydrogeochemical tools, the main processes that favor a diversity of water types were described, related to: presence of salt deposits on the lagoon beds, marine origin of the water, and local influence of groundwater. All these factors make it difficult to establish what reference conditions should be used to define “good” water quality of the surface waters—as required by the Water framework directive—and to understand the influence of groundwater on these coastal wetlands. Knowledge about the influence of the different interaction of these factors on the hydrogeochemical dynamics is required for the sustainable management of this protected natural site.     

Groundwater hydrochemistry and soil pollution in a catchment affected by an abandoned lead–zinc mine: functioning of a diffuse pollution source

The importance of polluted alluvial soils as a potential diffuse source of heavy metals was investigated in a catchment of the Matylda stream affected by an abandoned lead and zinc ore mine in Upper Silesia, southern Poland. This was attempted by means of standard groundwater analyses performed together with measurements of Cd, Pb, Zn, Fe and Mn concentrations in soil and groundwater. The Matylda stream, receiving mine water, was converted in the 20th century into a straight channel directed in its middle reach over the valley bottom. This changed the drainage direction of the Matylda stream water. During mining operations, groundwater seepage, combined with surface drainage by shallow ditches caused pollution of sandy soils exceeding over 100 mg/kg of Cd, 24% of Zn and 4% of Pb at surface or subsurface soil horizons, and reaching at least 60 cm in depth. After mine closure in the 1970s, the network of ditches appears to be a source of Ca, Mg, chlorides, carbonates and nitrates, as indicated by the more or less regular increase of these major ion concentrations in groundwater down ditches. Whereas, the ditches are a sink rather than a source of zinc, cadmium and lead in permanently dry reaches, or transition zones in reaches with surface water flowing periodically. The metal concentrations and distribution in soil and groundwater suggest the slow mobilization of heavy metals stored in the valley bottom and the minor importance of soil as a diffuse source for surface water pollution.     

Groundwater arsenic contamination in Ganga–Meghna–Brahmaputra plain, its health effects and an approach for mitigation

The authors’ survey of the Ganga–Meghna–Brahmaputra (GMB) plain (area 569,749 km²; population >500 million) over the past 20 years and analysis of more than 220,000 hand tube-well water samples revealed groundwater arsenic contamination in the floodplains of the Ganga–Brahmaputra river (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Assam) in India and the Padma–Meghna–Brahmaputra river in Bangladesh. On average, 50 % of the water samples contain arsenic above the World Health Organization guideline value of 10 μg/L in India and Bangladesh. More than 100 million people in the GMB plain are potentially at risk. The authors’ medical team screened around 155,000 people from the affected villages and registered 16,000 patients with different types of arsenical skin lesions. Arsenic neuropathy and adverse pregnancy outcomes have been recorded. Infants and children drinking arsenic-contaminated water are believed to be at high risk. About 45,000 biological samples analyzed from arsenic-affected villages of the GMB plain revealed an elevated level of arsenic present in patients as well as non-patients, indicating that many are sub-clinically affected. In West Bengal and Bangladesh, there are huge surface water in rivers, wetlands, and flooded river basins. In the arsenic-affected GMB plain, the crisis is not over water scarcity but about managing the available water resources.     

Deformation history of the Hengshan–Wutai–Fuping Complexes: Implications for the evolution of the Trans-North China Orogen

The Trans-North China Orogen separates the North China Craton into two small continental blocks: the Eastern and Western Blocks. As one of the largest exposure in the central part of the orogen, the Hengshan–Wutai–Fuping Complexes consist of four lithotectonic units: the Wutai, Hengshan and Fuping Complexes and the Hutuo Group. The Hengshan Complex contains high pressure mafic granulites and retrograded eclogites. Structural analysis indicates that most of the rocks in these complexes underwent three distinct episodes of folding (D₁ to D₃) and two stages of ductile thrust shearing (STZ₁ between D₁ and D₂ and STZ₂ after D₃). The D₁ deformation formed penetrative axial planar foliations (S₁), mineral stretching lineations (L₁), and rarely-preserved small isoclinal folds (F₁) in the Hengshan and Fuping Complexes. In the Wutai Complex, however, large-scale F₁ recumbent folds with SW-vergence are displayed by sedimentary compositional layers. Penetrative transposition resulted in stacking of thrust sheets which are separated by ductile shear zones (STZ₁). The kinematic indicators of STZ₁ in the Hengshan and Wutai Complexes show top-to-the-S230°W thrusting likely related to northeastward, oblique pre-collisional subduction. D₁ resulted in crustal thickening with resultant prograde peak metamorphism. The Hutuo Group did not undergo the D₁ deformation, either because sedimentation was coeval with the D₁ deformation or because it was at a high structural level and was not influenced directly by the early deformation. The D₂ deformation produced NW-verging asymmetric and recumbent folds. The D₂ deformation is interpreted to have resulted from collision between the Eastern and Western Blocks of the North China Craton. In the Hutuo Group and the Fuping Complex, the development of ESE-verging asymmetric tight folds is associated with D₂. The structural pattern resulting from superimposition of D₁ and D₂ is a composite synform in the Hengshan–Wutai–Fuping Complexes. All four lithotectonic units were superposed during the later D₃ deformation. The D₃ deformation developed NW-trending open upright folds. Ongoing collision led to development of transpressional ductile shearing (STZ₂), forming the transpressional Zhujiafang dextral ductile shear zone between the northern Hengshan Complex and the southern Hengshan Complex, and generating the sinistral Longquanguan ductile shear zone between the Fuping Complex and the Wutai Complex, respectively. The STZ₁ and D₂ deformation were possibly responsible for fast syn-collisional exhumation of the high pressure mafic granulites and retrograded eclogites. The structural patterns and elucidation of the deformation history of the Hengshan–Wutai–Fuping Complexes places important constraints on the tectonic model suggesting that an oceanic lithosphere between the Eastern and Western Blocks underwent northeastward-directed oblique subduction beneath the western margin of the Eastern Block, and that the final closure of this ocean led to collision between the two blocks to form the coherent basement of the North China Craton.     

Mining Thick Coal Seams Under Thin Bedrock–Deformation and Failure of Overlying Strata and Alluvium

In underground coal mines, the failure of overlying strata can have disastrous effects where the working face is overlain by thin bedrock covered with thick alluvium. Roof failure under these conditions can cause a massive water and sand inrush. This paper presents a case study for a design to prevent such disasters in the Baodian mine, China. First, the engineering geological and hydrogeological conditions of the overlying lithified strata and the alluvium were obtained from field and laboratory studies. Numerical models were then built with different bedrock thicknesses using distinct-element modelling software. The deformation, failure, and subsidence of the overlying strata during simulated coal mining were studied using these computer models. Finally, the results of the model studies were combined with the geological data to design a reasonable layout for the longwall panel to be mined in the Baodian mine. Initial results showed that the alluvium was somewhat impervious and water-poor. The models showed that the first caving and weighting intervals of the roof decreased with decreasing bedrock thickness, and decreasing bedrock thickness also increased maximum subsidence of the alluvium. The maximum height of the caving zone and the minimum height of the sand-prevention coal and rock pillars were 34 m and 46 m, respectively. Knowing this allowed a somewhat shorter (204 m) but safe working face to be designed. This research provides a good background for the design of safe mines under similar conditions.     

Groundwater mixing and mineralization processes in a mountain–oasis–desert basin,northwest China: hydrogeochemistry and environmental tracer indicators

Hydrogeochemistry and environmental tracers (²H, ¹⁸O, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) in precipitation, river and reservoir water, and groundwater have been used to determine groundwater recharge sources, and to identify mixing characteristics and mineralization processes in the Manas River Basin (MRB), which is a typical mountain–oasis–desert ecosystem in arid northwest China. The oasis component is artificial (irrigation). Groundwater with enriched stable isotope content originates from local precipitation and surface-water leakage in the piedmont alluvial–oasis plain. Groundwater with more depleted isotopes in the north oasis plain and desert is recharged by lateral flow from the adjacent mountains, for which recharge is associated with high altitude and/or paleo-water infiltrating during a period of much colder climate. Little evaporation and isotope exchange between groundwater and rock and soil minerals occurred in the mountain, piedmont and oasis plain. Groundwater δ²H and δ¹⁸O values show more homogeneous values along the groundwater flow direction and with well depths, indicating inter-aquifer mixing processes. A regional contrast of groundwater allows the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios and δ¹⁸O values to be useful in a combination with Cl, Na, Mg, Ca and Sr concentrations to distinguish the groundwater mixing characteristics. Two main processes are identified: groundwater lateral-flow mixing and river leakage in the piedmont alluvial–oasis plain, and vertical mixing in the north oasis plain and the desert. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios and selected ion ratios reveal that carbonate dissolution and mixing with silicate from the southern mountain area are primarily controlling the strontium isotope hydrogeochemistry.     

Stress and Deformation Analysis of Concrete-Facing Sand–Gravel Dam Based on Inversion Parameters

With the long-term operation of the project, the material parameters of concrete-facing sand–gravel dam will change, which brings great difficulty to the scientific and effective stress and deformation analysis. Combining with the measured displacement data, the finite element analysis model of the concrete-facing sand–gravel dam of Heiquan reservoir was established, and the modulus of elasticity and internal friction angle of the dam body were inverted by the measured displacement of the dam, then the simulation analysis of the filling construction process and the reservoir storage process of dam was carried out, and the stress and deformation values of the dam during the construction period and the impoundment period were calculated. The results showed that the parameters obtained from the inversion are smaller than the original parameters, but there is little difference between them. The displacement calculated by finite element inversion was close to the measured displacement value, the overall displacement and stress distribution of the dam body and panel were in line with the general law, and the calculated displacement and stress values were at the normal level. This study provides a reference for parameter inversion and stress and deformation analysis of concrete slab dam through monitoring data analysis.