Comparison of Hydraulic Conductivity Values Obtained from Aquifer Pumping Tests and Conservative Tracer Tests

Afield site was established in an area of glacial outwash near Des Moines, Iowa. Hydraulic conductivity (K) of the outwash was measured in various ways including six pumping tests and two natural-gradient Cl^- tracer tests. The velocity of the conservative tracer was converted to K using measured gradients and effective porosity determined from two radial-convergent Cl^- tracer tests.
K values measured from the conservative tracer tests are approximately one-tenth to one-twentieth the average pumping-test value. Thus the K relevant to solute transport does not reflect the K measured by pumping tests. This discrepancy may be caused by the different scale and dimensionality of the two test types. Dispersion may prevent solutes from flowing exclusively within smaller high-conductivity paths which strongly affect the K measured by pumping tests.     

Bootstrap Calibration and Uncertainty Estimation of Downhole NMR Hydraulic Conductivity Estimates in an Unconsolidated Aquifer

Characterization of hydraulic conductivity (K) in aquifers is critical for evaluation, management, and remediation of groundwater resources. While estimates of K have been traditionally obtained using hydraulic tests over discrete intervals in wells, geophysical measurements are emerging as an alternative way to estimate this parameter. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging, a technology once largely applied to characterization of deep consolidated rock petroleum reservoirs, is beginning to see use in near‐surface unconsolidated aquifers. Using a well‐known rock physics relationship—the Schlumberger Doll Research (SDR) equation—K and porosity can be estimated from NMR water content and relaxation time. Calibration of SDR parameters is necessary for this transformation because NMR relaxation properties are, in part, a function of magnetic mineralization and pore space geometry, which are locally variable quantities. Here, we present a statistically based method for calibrating SDR parameters that establishes a range for the estimated parameters and simultaneously estimates the uncertainty of the resulting K values. We used co‐located logging NMR and direct K measurements in an unconsolidated fluvial aquifer in Lawrence, Kansas, USA to demonstrate that K can be estimated using logging NMR to a similar level of uncertainty as with traditional direct hydraulic measurements in unconsolidated sediments under field conditions. Results of this study provide a benchmark for future calibrations of NMR to obtain K in unconsolidated sediments and suggest a method for evaluating uncertainty in both K and SDR parameter values.     

The Influence of Topology on Hydraulic Conductivity in a Sand-and-Gravel Aquifer

A field experiment consisting of geophysical logging and tracer testing was conducted in a single well that penetrated a sand-and-gravel aquifer at the U.S. Geological Survey Toxic Substances Hydrology research site on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Geophysical logs and flowmeter/pumping measurements were obtained to estimate vertical profiles of porosity ϕ, hydraulic conductivity K, temperature, and bulk electrical conductivity under background, freshwater conditions. Saline-tracer fluid was then injected into the well for 2 h and its radial migration into the surrounding deposits was monitored by recording an electromagnetic-induction log every 10 min. The field data are analyzed and interpreted primarily through the use of Archie's (1942) law to investigate the role of topological factors such as pore geometry and connectivity, and grain size and packing configuration in regulating fluid flow through these coarse-grained materials. The logs reveal no significant correlation between K and ϕ, and imply that groundwater models that link these two properties may not be useful at this site. Rather, it is the distribution and connectivity of the fluid phase as defined by formation factor F, cementation index m, and tortuosity α that primarily control the hydraulic conductivity. Results show that F correlates well with K, thereby indicating that induction logs provide qualitative information on the distribution of hydraulic conductivity. A comparison of α, which incorporates porosity data, with K produces only a slightly better correlation and further emphasizes the weak influence of the bulk value of ϕ on K.     

Hydraulic Conductivity Calibration of Logging NMR in a Granite Aquifer,Laramie Range,Wyoming

In granite aquifers, fractures can provide both storage volume and conduits for groundwater. Characterization of fracture hydraulic conductivity (K) in such aquifers is important for predicting flow rate and calibrating models. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) well logging is a method to quickly obtain near-borehole hydraulic conductivity (i.e., K_NMR) at high-vertical resolution. On the other hand, FLUTe flexible liner technology can produce a K profile at comparable resolution but requires a fluid driving force between borehole and formation. For three boreholes completed in a fractured granite, we jointly interpreted logging NMR data and FLUTe K estimates to calibrate an empirical equation for translating borehole NMR data to K estimates. For over 90% of the depth intervals investigated from these boreholes, the estimated K_NMR are within one order of magnitude of K_FLUTe. The empirical parameters obtained from calibrating the NMR data suggest that “intermediate diffusion” and/or “slow diffusion” during the NMR relaxation time may occur in the flowing fractures when hydraulic aperture are sufficiently large. For each borehole, “intermediate diffusion” dominates the relaxation time, therefore assuming “fast diffusion” in the interpretation of NMR data from fractured rock may lead to inaccurate K_NMR estimates. We also compare calibrations using inexpensive slug tests that suggest reliable K_NMR estimates for fractured rock may be achieved using limited calibration against borehole hydraulic measurements.     

Effects of Improper Characterization of Aquifer Thickness on Estimates of Hydraulic Conductivity from Pumping Tests

Pumping test data for surficial aquifers are commonly analyzed under the assumption that the base of the aquifer corresponds to the bottom of the test wells (i.e., the aquifer is truncated). This practice can lead to inaccurate hydraulic conductivity estimates, resulting from the use of low saturated thickness values with transmissivity estimates, and not accounting for the effects of partially penetrating wells. Theoretical time-drawdown data were generated at an observation well in a hypothetical unconfined aquifer for various values of saturated thickness and were analyzed by standard curve-matching techniques. The base of the aquifer was assumed to be the bottom of the pumping and observation wells. The overestimation of horizontal hydraulic conductivity was found to be directly proportional to the error in assumed saturated thickness, and to the (actual) ratio of vertical to horizontal hydraulic conductivity (K_v/K_h). Inaccurately high estimates of hydraulic conductivity obtained by aquifer truncation can lead to overestimates of ground water velocity and contaminant plume spreading, narrow capture zone configuration estimates, and overestimates of available ground water resources.     

Estimation of the Change in Hydraulic Conductivity Above Mined Longwall Panels

The change in hydraulic conductivity (K) above subsided longwall panels at underground coal mines is determined using a data base of pre‐mining and post‐mining K measurements made at multiple locations down the depth profile at each of a number of sites worldwide. Results show that, following caving of roof strata, there is a clear difference in the magnitude of changes in K above and below the top of the collapsed zone. Within the collapsed zone, relative increases in K are larger, even when taking account of measurements made in potentially unsaturated strata. A generalized conceptual model is presented for K change above subsided longwall panels. These results form a third independent database supporting the height of desaturation reported in an earlier study.     

Simple Hydraulic Conductivity Estimation by the Kalman Filtered Double Constraint Method

This paper presents the Kalman Filtered Double Constraint Method (DCM‐KF) as a technique to estimate the hydraulic conductivities in the grid blocks of a groundwater flow model. The DCM is based on two forward runs with the same initial grid block conductivities, but with alternating flux‐head conditions specified on parts of the boundary and the wells. These two runs are defined as: (1) the flux run, with specified fluxes (recharge and well abstractions), and (2) the head run, with specified heads (measured in piezometers). Conductivities are then estimated as the initial conductivities multiplied by the fluxes obtained from the flux run and divided by the fluxes obtained from the head run. The DCM is easy to implement in combination with existing models (e.g., MODFLOW). Sufficiently accurate conductivities are obtained after a few iterations. Because of errors in the specified head‐flux couples, repeated estimation under varying hydrological conditions results in different conductivities. A time‐independent estimate of the conductivities and their inaccuracy can be obtained by a simple linear KF with modest computational requirements. For the Kleine Nete catchment, Belgium, the DCM‐KF yields sufficiently accurate calibrated conductivities. The method also results in distinguishing regions where the head‐flux observations influence the calibration from areas where it is not able to influence the hydraulic conductivity.     

Tensor Hydraulic Conductivity Estimation for Heterogeneous Aquifers under Unknown Boundary Conditions

A physically based inverse method is developed using hybrid formulation and coordinate transform to simultaneously estimate hydraulic conductivity tensors, steady‐state flow field, and boundary conditions for a confined aquifer under ambient flow or pumping condition. Unlike existing indirect inversion techniques, the physically based method does not require forward simulations to assess model‐data misfits. It imposes continuity of hydraulic head and Darcy fluxes in the model domain while incorporating observations (hydraulic heads, Darcy fluxes, or well rates) at measurement locations. Given sufficient measurements, it yields a well‐posed inverse system of equations that can be solved efficiently with coarse grids and nonlinear optimization. When pumping and injection are active, well rates are used as measurements and flux sampling is not needed. The method is successfully tested on synthetic aquifer problems with regular and irregular geometries, different hydrofacies and flow patterns, and increasing conductivity anisotropy ratios. All problems yield stable inverse solutions under increasing head measurement errors. For a given set of observations, inversion accuracy is strongly affected by the conductivity anisotropy ratio. Conductivity estimation is also affected by flow pattern: within a hydrofacies, when Darcy flux component is very small, the corresponding directional conductivity perpendicular to streamlines becomes less identifiable. Finally, inversion is successful even if the location of aquifer boundaries is unknown. In this case, the inversion domain is defined by the location of the measurements.     

Near Surface Electrical Characterization of Hydraulic Conductivity: From Petrophysical Properties to Aquifer Geometries—A Review

This paper reviews the recent geophysical literature addressing the estimation of saturated hydraulic conductivity (K) from static low frequency electrical measurements (electrical resistivity, induced polarization (IP) and spectral induced polarization (SIP)). In the first part of this paper, research describing how petrophysical relations between electrical properties and effective (i.e. controlling fluid transport) properties of (a) the interconnected pore volumes and interconnected pore surfaces, have been exploited to estimate K at both the core and field scale is reviewed. We start with electrical resistivity measurements, which are shown to be inherently limited in K estimation as, although resistivity is sensitive to both pore volume and pore surface area properties, the two contributions cannot be separated. Efforts to utilize the unique sensitivity of IP and SIP measurements to physical parameters that describe the interconnected pore surface area are subsequently introduced and the incorporation of such data into electrical based Kozeny–Carman type models of K estimation is reviewed. In the second part of this review, efforts to invert geophysical datasets for spatial patterns of K variability (e.g. aquifer geometries) at the field-scale are considered. Inversions, based on the conversion of an image of a geophysical property to a hydrological property assuming a valid petrophysical relationship, as well as joint/constrained inversion methods, whereby multiple geophysical and hydrological data are inverted simultaneously, are briefly covered. This review demonstrates that there currently exists an opportunity to link, (1) the petrophysics relating low frequency electrical measurements to effective hydraulic properties, with (2) the joint inversion strategies developed in recent years, in order to obtain more meaningful estimates of spatial patterns of K variability than previously reported.     

Detection of Magnetically Susceptible Dyke Swarms in a Fresh Coastal Aquifer

Groundwater constitutes the main source of freshwater in Shalatein, on the western coast of the Red Sea, in Egypt. The fresh aquifer of Shalatein is intensively dissected by shallow and deep faults associated with the occurrence of dykes and/or dyke swarms. In this context, synthesis of electrical resistivity, ground magnetics, and borehole data was implemented to investigate the freshwater aquifer condition, locate the intrusive dykes and/or dyke swarms, and demarcate the potential freshwater zones. Nine Schlumberger VES’s with maximum current electrode half-spacing (AB/2) of 682 m were conducted. The subsurface was successfully delineated by general four layers. The fresh aquifer of the Quaternary and Pre-Quaternary alluvium sediments was effectively demarcated with true resistivities ranged from 30 to 105 Ωm and thickness ranged between 20 and 60 m. A ground magnetic survey comprised 35 magnetic profiles, each 7 km in length. Magnetic data interpretation of the vertical derivatives (first and second order), downward continuation (100 m), apparent susceptibility (depth of 100 m), and wavelength filters (Butterworth high-pass of wavelengths <100 m and Band-Pass of wavelengths 30–100 m) successfully distinguished the near surface structure with five major clusters of dyke swarms, whereas filters of the upward continuation (300 m) and Butterworth low-pass (wavelengths >300 m) clearly reflected the deep-seated structure. The computed depth by the 3D Euler deconvolution for geological contacts and faults (SI = 0) ranged from 14 to 545 m, whereas for dyke and sill (SI = 1), it ranged from 10 to 1,095 m. The western part of the study area is recommended as a potential freshwater zone as it is characterized by depths >100 m to the top of the dykes, higher thickness of the fresh aquifer (45–60 m), depths to the top of the fresh aquifer ranging from 25 to 40 m, and higher resistivities reflecting better freshwater quality (70–105 Ωm).