Uneven development of the sustainable city: shifting capital in Portland,Oregon

Portland, Oregon, is renowned as a paradigmatic “sustainable city.” Yet, despite popular conceptions of the city as a progressive ecotopia and the accolades of planners seeking to emulate its innovations, Portland’s sustainability successes are inequitably distributed. Drawing on census data, popular media, newspaper archives, city planning documents, and secondary source histories, we attempt to elucidate the structural origins of Portland’s “uneven development,” exploring how and why the urban core of this paragon of sustainability has become more White and affluent while its outer eastside has become more diverse and poor. We explain how a “sustainability fix”—in this case, green investment in the city’s core—ultimately contributed to the demarcation of racialized poverty along 82nd Avenue, a major north–south arterial marking the boundary of East Portland. Our account of structural processes taking place at multiple scales contributes to a growing body of literature on eco-gentrification and displacement and inner-ring suburban change while empirically demonstrating how Portland’s advances in sustainability have come at the cost of East Portland’s devaluation. Our “30,000 foot” perspective reveals systemic patterns that might then guide more fine-grained analyses of particular political-socio-cultural processes, while providing cautionary insights into current efforts to extend the city’s sustainability initiatives using the same green development model.     

中国城市与城市发展理论的历史

论述中国自周期以来的城市概念和理论，指出中国城市性质和城市结构的自有特点及其与西方发展经验为基础的城市概念和理论不同，将中国漫长的演变历史分为封建时代，中华人民共和国建立至1978年和1978年以后的改革开放3个时期。3个时期所形成的城市概念和理论，都有中国特色，是中国城市及城市化向前发展的重要的理解和指导基础。     

深圳市新移民社会空间分异

基于第六次全国人口普査数据,通过计算分异指数、隔离指数和区位爛,分析了深圳这一典型移民城市的新移民社会空间格局及其分异状况,并采用线性回归模型深入探讨新移民空间分异的影响因素,在此基础上与广州市进行对比。研究表明:1)深圳的社会空间存在5类人口因子,出现精英阶层聚居区、工薪阶层聚居区、离退休人口聚居区、本地村镇人口聚居区和新移民聚居区5类社会阶层聚居区。2)新移民在空间分布总体上表现出“差序格局”:由关内(福田区、罗湖区、南山区和盐田区)到关外(宝安区、龙岗区、光明新区、龙华新区、坪山新区和大鹏新区),“省内新移民”减少而“省外新移民”增加。3)深圳新移民与本地常住人口的分异指数为0.47,隔离指数为0.64,与广州新移民的指数相比,深圳新移民的隔离程度较高。4)制度因素(户口属性)对深圳新移民聚居区的影响减弱,市场因素的作用正不断增强,符合“市场转型论”的假设。同时人口和家庭因素对新移民聚居有一定影响,其中年龄结构和教育水平是影响新移民聚居的重要因素。5)对比广州市,广州新移民聚居同时受到制度因素和市场因素的双重影响,户籍制度影响依然具有一定的历史延续性,同时年龄结构与婚姻状况也具有显著影响。由此可见,新移民的空间分异及其影响机制具有异质性,深圳市作为改革开放的窗口,体现T中国社会主义市场转型对社会空间的影响效应。     

中国中心城市旅游出行的空间分布规律与结构图谱研究

通过全国338个地级及以上城市旅游出行大数据,应用基于O-D联系的ArcGIS空间分析和Gephi网络分析,深入挖掘旅游数字足迹所蕴涵的“位空间”与“流空间”信息,全景式解析中国旅游出行的空间分布规律与结构特征。研究显示,全国旅游出行的总体空间分布呈现出“菱形”空间架构。全国旅游出行的“核心-边缘”结构特征显著,国家主要中心城市及城市群在旅游出行方面拥有强大的辐射带动作用。依据旅游出行强度指标,并综合考虑地理区位、空间联系、职能定位等因素,将中心城市按旅游出行能力划分为国家综合中心、国家门户中心、区域中心、省域中心、地方中心5个等级体系,旅游出行的城市等级规模递增特征极其明显。大数据显示,全国旅游出行的适宜距离为600~2 000 km,最佳出行距离为1 200 km,人均旅游出行距离为1 060 km,不同等级中心城市旅游出行随着空间距离增加总体上呈现波动衰减特征。旅游联系网络分析显示,在区域尺度上,全国形成了以北京-天津、上海-杭州、广州-深圳、成都-重庆为核心的4个旅游社团联系网络,区域旅游出行“各自为政”,而大空间尺度上旅游出行是“全国一盘棋”。研究通过划分不同空间距离区段,对中心城市旅游出行分布规律及其社团结构进行多尺度、分层次的扫描式空间解构,从而实现更加精准和细致的空间刻画与结构图谱展现。     

转型期煤炭资源型城市空间重构——以淮南市、淮北市为例

以淮南市、淮北市4次城市规划中土地利用现状图为基础,运用ArcGIS软件对案例城市空间结构演化进程进行可视化表达和计量分析,揭示了煤炭资源型城市空间结构演化的过程、特征。通过对不同时点、不同用地类型的叠置分析,基于城市主要用地类型间的置换规模、频度、广度、强度及空间邻近关系,总结出商—居置换重构、商—工置换重构、居—工置换重构、工—居置换重构4种空间重构模式。当前,煤炭资源型城市以商—居置换重构和居—工置换重构为主,其空间置换面积大、频率高。最后,分析了经济发展、产业演替、体制改革、城市化、环境保护以及城市规划6个因素对煤炭资源型城市空间重构的影响,认为煤炭资源型城市内部空间重构是一种自我修复过程。     

“规土融合”的技术体系、管理模式创新及发展展望——以武汉市为例

在"多规合一"发展的背景下,以武汉为例,聚焦城市规划与土地利用规划融合("规土融合")在地方层面的实施路径与发展目标。系统梳理了其在体系结构、技术语言、信息平台等方面的技术革新策略,同时概括出管理模式创新中协调成本内部化、转变政府角色、倡导交往理性、加快接轨市场等有益尝试。此外,强调武汉实践中"两规"与"规-土"的内涵差异,丰富对规划融合发展目标的认识,以期为相关地方实践带来有益启示,也为宏观规划体系改革提供自下而上的思考视角。     

新时期我国中心城市人口城镇化特征及其空间格局

在新一轮城镇化进程中,以人力资本为核心的创新经济逐步成为推动经济增长的动力引擎,省域中心城市作为人口聚集地的功能日益凸显。人口流动倾向影响着不同规模和行政等级城市之间的城镇体系重构,选取各个省域典型城市作为重点分析对象,通过我国城市人口最新数据统计测算,揭示出近期全国城镇化发展态势与大都市区域格局变化特征。结果发现,我国人口城镇化发展态势逐渐趋于平稳,不同地区、不同规模城市对人口的吸纳能力仍存在显著差异,各类直辖市、省会城市、副省级城市在人口集聚方面表现突出,传统港口城市、工业城市、省域副中心城市的人口吸引力逐步趋弱。其中,一级城市人口吸纳能力超强,二级城市成为人口重要集聚地,三级城市人口增速趋缓,四级城市人口吸引力平稳;可将之划分为“高/低规模”“高/低增长”四种不同组合类型。同时,城市人口的增长变化和人力资本竞争,显著影响了城市区域经济发展,特别是中西部地区省域中心城市实力日益增强,人口增长强劲,进而改变了传统东中西区域经济显著分异的格局,省会城市首位度表现出“高/低位序”“高/低集中”四种不同组合分布特征,且集中于“高位序、高集中”和“低位序、低集中”两种类型,分化格局相对明显。伴随着中国大都市的不断发育成熟,其逐步成为新时代创新经济和人口集聚的引领者。     

Policy Boosterism,Policy Mobilities,and the Extrospective City

Abstract

This study develops the notion of “policy boosterism,” a subset of traditional branding and marketing activities that involves the active promotion of locally developed and/or locally successful policies, programs, or practices across wider geographical fields as well as to broader communities of interested peers. It is argued that policy boosterism is (1) an important element of how urban policy actors engage with global communities of professional peers and with local residents, and (2) a useful concept with which to interrogate and understand how policies and policy knowledge are mobilized among cities. A conceptualization of policy boosterism and its role in global-urban policymaking is developed by combining insights from the burgeoning “policy mobilities” literature with those of the longstanding literature on entrepreneurial city marketing. It is supported by illustrative examples of policy boosterism in Vancouver: the city's Greenest City and Green Capital initiatives, the use of the term “Vancouverism” among the city's urban design community, and demonstrations of new urban technologies during the 2010 Winter Olympics that were used to market a particular vision of the city's governance to people from elsewhere, but also—crucially—to local audiences. The article concludes by highlighting four foci that might frame future work at the intersections of policy boosterism and policy mobilities.     

乡镇级“规土融合”实现路径与技术创新——基于武汉乡镇总体规划实践的探讨

在我国的规划体系中,城乡规划与土地利用规划是空间规划的核心,两者同时管理城乡用地,以实现土地资源的合理分配。两规由于在管理体制、技术方法、审批实施等方面存在矛盾,使得城乡用地管理效率低下。乡镇作为联系城乡的过渡地带,用地矛盾尤为突出。实现乡镇级"规土融合"对于调控城市边缘区用地矛盾、实现城乡统筹发展具有重要意义。首先从理论层面分析两规在乡镇级编制实施中的技术性矛盾,包括规划期限与规划范围、用地分类与统计口径、规划用地规模与布局、空间管制分区与要求、规划审批层级与标准5个方面,并从管理体制、规划思路、规划重点和法律依据方面探讨其矛盾产生的根源。进而,基于武汉市乡镇总体规划实践,从技术创新的角度系统总结了乡镇总体规划的技术程式,旨在从相对微观的层面进一步诠释"规土融合"理念的实践操作模式。     

2003-2013年中国城市形态研究评述

根据2003-2013年间在国内主要地理学、城市规划和建筑学期刊上发表的研究文献,对近10年间的城市形态相关研究的内容、方法和进展进行评述。文章在辨析城市“布局形态”、“结构形态”、“肌理形态”三大概念的基础上,将现有研究成果按城市形态影响要素分解、新技术方法应用、时间—空间维度探讨、可持续城市形态、城市形态规划、管理和控制,以及分城市、地区案例研究六大主线进行归纳,并评析现有成果的研究视角、技术方法、实践应用特点及其局限。比较中西方城市形态研究轨迹,国内研究习惯于通过实证主义的因果演绎和经验主义的案例归纳来理解现有城市的形态发展历程,并在借鉴历史经验和西方经验的基础上,寻求城市形态发展的“理想城市形态”。而西方研究则致力于寻求“可持续城市形态”的可操作性和实现方式,侧重于可持续发展的路径探索和规划应对。本文提出未来城市形态研究应更关注微观层面的肌理形态分析,应从更加温和、建设性的“时间—空间演化”视角探讨城市形态演进规律,为包容性、共生性的“可持续形态”演变发展构建理论基础。     

Shifting borders,shifting center: hedging-out uncertainty in west Jerusalem’s urban core

ABSTRACT

This article argues that contested cities are inherently characterized by uncertainty and uses the interconnections between conflict, uncertainty and urban planning as a new analytical framework for investigating conflict cities. In the contested city of Jerusalem, geopolitical uncertainty stems from the Israeli occupation over East Jerusalem. Focusing on recent urban regeneration plans for West Jerusalem’s city center, the article explores how the municipality locates, plans and imagines the city center when the city’s external and internal boundaries are contested and unfixed. A two-tier analysis is employed. First, a historical analysis shows that the “city center”, as defined by authorities, is an unfixed locale that shifts in concurrence with shifts in the city’s boundaries. Then, a geopolitical analysis shows that by shifting the city center’s boundaries, the Israeli authorities decouple the city’s economic development (in the west) from Israel’s continuing ethno-national policies (in the east).     

The empty rhetoric of the smart city: from digital inclusion to economic promotion in Philadelphia

Smart city initiatives have been adopted by cities worldwide, proposing forward-looking, technological solutions to urban problems big and small. These policies are indicative of a digitized urban condition, where social and economic exchange rely on globalized telecommunications networks, and governance strategies follow suit. Propelled through events such as IBM’s Smarter Cities Challenge, the smart city acts as a data-driven logic urban change where widespread benefit to a city and its residents is proposed, masking the utility of these policies to further entrepreneurial economic development strategies. In this article, I present a case study of the Digital On-Ramps initiative that emerged from IBM’s policy-consultation in Philadelphia. The initiative proposed a social media-style workforce education application (app) to train up to 500,000 low-literacy residents for jobs in the information and knowledge economy, but even as the city’s mayor declared the project a success, it did not meet expectations. This essay argues that the rhetoric of intelligent, transformative digital change works much more to “sell” a city in the global economy than to actually address urban inequalities.     

Globalization and Emerging Office and Commercial Landscapes in Shanghai

Office and commercial infrastructure in urban China largely disappeared during the period of central planning between 1949 and 1978. The role of downtown areas in China's cities, however, has been reinvented as a result of China's global integration. In Shanghai, comprehensive planning efforts were made for the renovation of the CBD and the restructuring of the inner city. This article examines the emergence of office and commercial landscapes by linking planning implementation to broad market transition. It argues that the emergence of office and commercial centers in Shanghai can be viewed as the result of market forces as well as discretionary implementation of city comprehensive plans by local governments in the inner city—in response to global integration on the one hand and investor interests on the other.     

Bargaining for nature: treating the environment in China’s urban planning practice

ABSTRACT

In much of the contemporary academic inquiry and political discourse on Chinese cities, urban entrepreneurialism and environmentalism often appear to be analyzed disjointedly and unreflectively. They are portrayed as two conflicting interests. Commentators also view urban planners as a homogenous group of professionals and/or state agents being forced to give up environmental goals to pursue economic value of space. Using the case of Tianjin Eco-City planning, this article interrogates the bargaining process between the “ecological value” and “commodity narrative”. It offers three major arguments. First, even though the discourse of environmental sustainability has been used to legitimize economic transformation, ecological demands are creating new pressures on entrepreneurial urban governance. Second, rather than treating Chinese planners as a fully constituted, internally coherent, organizationally-fixed, and operationally-consistent group, they should be viewed as hybrid, and diverse entities that represent divergent and sometimes contentious state interests. Third, planners, though still under tremendous pressure from landed interests, can become active players to positively influence urban transformation toward more environmental care.     

Seeing ghosts: parsing China’s “ghost city” controversy

Controversy has arisen in recent years over the creation of so-called “ghost cities” across China. The ghost city term tends to describe large-scale urban areas, sometimes planned as new towns, featuring an abundance of new built space and appearing to also have extremely low tenancy. This article examines key questions related to the ghost city phenomenon, such as: what is a ghost city? Are ghost cities driven by a tendency toward over-supply in housing? How are local-level political incentives aligned to foster the production of ghost cities? Are ghost cities temporary anomalies or structural features of China’s urban-led economic growth model? We discuss recent scholarly research into ghost cities and present original findings to show how an excess of urban space may plague certain Chinese cities.     

中国租赁住房发展的区域差异与影响因素

加快培育和发展住房租赁市场,是新时代中国住房制度改革的重要内容。基于2000年和2010年全国分县人口普查数据,运用GIS空间统计方法和空间计量模型,实证分析了中国337个地级以上城市的租赁住房发展区域差异与影响因素。研究表明：2000—2010年,中国租赁住房发展经历了“空间分散化”向“空间集聚”的发展态势,租赁住房发展高值区向长三角和珠三角城市群、西部地区的部分区域中心城市以及北京、厦门等经济发达城市更加靠拢;中国租赁住房发展和变化存在显著的空间集聚特征,且空间集聚趋势越来越强,而不同时期的中国租赁住房发展热点区分布有所变迁;空间计量模型表明,二三产业从业人员比例、住宅价格、租售比、外来人口比例、常住人口、65岁以上人口比例、家庭户规模和平均受教育年限等因素是影响2010年中国租赁住房发展区域差异的显著因素;而2000—2010年中国租赁住房发展变化主要与常住人口、外来人口比例、人均住房面积、65岁以上人口比例、平均受教育年限和少数民族比例等因素有关。     

基于虚拟城市模型的城市形态对污水系统影响研究

城市形态与污水设施的运行之间关系密切,探讨城市形态对城市内污水设施的影响对解决现有设施存在的水力失效及未来情景应对能力欠佳等问题具有重要价值。因此,论文测算了现阶段中国地级城市的城市形态,设置了城市形态情景和排水情景,使用Kruscal算法进行管网定线、SWMM软件模拟系统性能,构建自上而下的虚拟城市空间与污水系统耦合模型,探索了不同形态城市的污水系统生命周期成本、结构和性能的一般性规律,构建了系统经济性、有效性和适应性指标体系以综合评估城市污水系统。研究发现,在城市人口36.24万、面积35 km²的规模下,污水系统的生命周期成本约为6亿~7亿元。方形、长条形和星形的流速失效比分别为0.55、0.67、0.55,充满度失效比分别为0.35、0.42、0.36。在排水情景改变下,污水量变小时,系统流速失效情况均更为严重,而充满度失效情况均有所改善;当污水量变大时,流速失效情况均有所改善,而充满度失效情况更为严重。分析系统结构特性,发现越分散的污水系统连通性越好,长条形城市的污水系统相较于方形和星形城市更为集中。对指标作相关性分析,发现越分散的污水系统经济性和有效性更好,但适应性更差。从系统经济性和有效性角度出发,方形和星形城市更有利。从污水系统适应性角度出发,长条形城市优于方形和星形城市,结合2010—2015年的城市形态分析,长条→长条(变化前后城市形态均为长条形,以此类推)、星形→长条、方形→长条的86个城市的城市发展方向不够合理,各城市在未来扩建或新建规划中应在因地制宜基础上考虑内部污水设施,选择合理的城市形态。     

A Review of “Latino Immigrants and the Transformation of the U.S. South”

Research on small cities has begun to attract the attention of scholars who argue that contemporary urban scholarship, in its preoccupation with the largest and most advanced world-class cities, have largely ignored small to medium-sized cities. In China, although much attention has been paid to economically advanced urban centers, there actually has been a steady stream of work on small cities. This article profiles how a comparatively smaller city in western China attempts to market itself by selectively placing itself within various social–spatial and political–economic realities. Through Jinghong, we illustrate how local officials and planners attempt to center the city as a gateway to Southeast Asia. By activating, often discursively, multiscalar transborder strategies, local officials in Jinghong not only mobilize ethnic imaginaries, but they also adopt forms of entrepreneurial tactics to promote growth. Developmental strategies of Jinghong not only vacillate between (and draw on) both rural and urban resources; they are furthermore expected to alleviate rural poverty. Through highlighting the agency of small cities like Jinghong in China, this article speaks to the broader developmentalist critique of third- and fourth-world cities as an unfortunate footnote in global urban restructuring, often depicted as places of uniform marginalization and structural irrelevance. Indeed, by focusing on the geography of small cities and giving due attention to their size and proximity to rural spaces, case studies like Jinghong might yet point empathetically to different ways and imperatives of “being urban” where the weight that they carry can also be duly recognized.     

2006—2015年湖北省城市相对收缩时空变化

城市收缩是中国新型城镇化建设面临的重大挑战。当前,经济社会转型的“流空间”效应导致城市相对收缩日益加剧。收缩型中小城市转型已上升至中国新型城镇化建设决策视野。然而,目前对有关城市相对收缩的认识明显不足。论文选取中小城市密集的典型地区——湖北省为案例区,构建城市相对收缩识别框架及面板数据回归模型,开展城市相对收缩格局动态及成因分析。结果表明：① 2006—2015年,湖北全省36个城市中有27个出现了相对收缩,其中,强相对收缩城市18个。相对收缩城市占比总体呈“东西高、中部低”的格局。“流空间”效应对湖北省中小城市收缩的影响显著。② 从“十一五”到“十二五”时期,除武汉市持续强相对扩张、襄阳市持续弱相对扩张外,相对收缩城市从21个增长到24个。③ 湖北省城市发展战略在推动鄂西地区城市发展方面取得了一定的实质性效果。但是,对于武汉城市圈及其外围150 km圈层区域而言,大中小城市协调发展效果不理想。④ 产业空间规模扩大及城市建设维护管理水平提升对于控制城市相对收缩具有重要的积极作用。最后,从推动湖北省城市协调发展、加强中小城市收缩管控方面探讨了政策建议。     

Spatial patterns of retail activity and street network structure in new and traditional Israeli cities

The association between spatial patterns of retail activity and the spatial configuration of street networks was examined by means of the space syntax methodology in eight Israeli cities that represent two city types, characterized by different planning approaches and urban growth: (i) new towns, which were established according to a comprehensive city plan and modern planning concepts of “tree-like” hierarchical street networks and “neighborhood units”; (ii) older cities, where street networks and the spatial patterns of retail activity were formed incrementally during their growth. Unlike in older cities, retail activity in new towns concentrates in relatively less-accessible and intermediate locations. This is indicated by a weak correlation between retail activity and the street network’s Integration and Choice centrality measures. The comparison between Israeli cities illustrates the influence of urban growth and planning approaches on the formation of retail activity and its interaction with the structure of the street network.