An automatic recognition algorithm for GPR images of RC structure voids

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a powerful tool for detecting defects in and behind reinforced concrete (RC) structures. However, the traditional way of interpreting GPR data involves considerable manpower and is time-consuming. The aim of this study is to illustrate a new approach to recognize GPR images of RC structure voids automatically. Firstly, synthetic GPR images are created by FDTD method. As multiple waves caused by steel bars seriously interfere with the target echo signals, it is difficult to identify targets from the forward modeling images. According to the periodicity of multiple waves from steel bars, the predictive deconvolution method is used to suppress those waves and the outcome is preferable. Then, the support vector machine (SVM) algorithm is proposed to automatically recognize voids in GPR images. The automatic identification procedure includes four steps: 1) collecting training data, 2) extracting features from GPR images, 3) building the SVM model and 4) identifying the voids automatically. The results show that the proposed method provides a suitable tool to locate the cover depths and lateral ranges of the voids, and the trained SVM model gives a favorable outcome when noise (no more than 5%) is added to a synthetic GPR image.     

机载探地雷达的进展以及数值模拟

机载探地雷达可能解决危险环境或广域条件下的近地表探测问题,用于解决环境、生态或军事方面的问题.然而由于种种原因,该技术的发展却显得比较慢.为了推进该技术的发展,本文介绍了目前世界范围内机载探地雷达的进展,并利用时间域有限差分法对一些典型模型进行数值模拟,并用特定的偏移成像方法对模拟结果进行成像.目前存在的机载探地雷达主要有三种类型:第一种为将常规探地雷达天线悬挂在直升飞机上,第二种为针对机载探地雷达开发的雷达系统,第三种为具有探地能力的合成孔径雷达.数值模拟结果表明,不管是水平地面的情况下,还是起伏界面的情况下,机载探地雷达都能清楚探测一定深度范围内的地下目标.可见,机载探地雷达是存满希望的一种方法.     

Spectral bandwidth enhancement of GPR profiling data using multiple-frequency compositing

The amplitude spectrum of ground penetrating radar (GPR) reflection data acquired with a particular antenna set is normally concentrated over a spectral bandwidth of a single octave, limiting the resolving power of the GPR wavelet. Where variously-sized GPR targets are located at numerous depths in the ground, it is often necessary to acquire several profiles of GPR data using antennas of different nominal frequencies. The most complete understanding of the subsurface is obtained when those frequency-limited radargrams are jointly interpreted, since each frequency yields a particular response to subsurface reflectivity. The application of deconvolution to GPR data could improve image quality, but is often hindered by limited spectral bandwidth.We present multiple-frequency compositing as a means of combining data from several frequency-limited datasets and improving the spectral bandwidth of the GPR profile. A multiple-frequency composite is built by summing together a number of spatially-coincident radargrams, each acquired with antennae of different centre frequency. The goal of the compositing process is therefore to produce a composite radargram with balanced contributions from frequency-limited radargrams and obtain a composite wavelet that has properties approximating a delta function (i.e. short in duration and having a broad, uniform spectral bandwidth).A synthetic investigation of the compositing process was performed using Berlage wavelets as proxies for GPR source pulses. This investigation suggests that a balanced, broad bandwidth, effective source pulse is obtained by a compositing process that equalises the spectral maxima of frequency-limited wavelets prior to summation into the composite. The compositing of real GPR data was examined using a set of 225, 450 and 900 MHz GPR common offset profiles acquired at a site on the Waterloo Moraine in Ontario, Canada. The most successful compositing strategy involved derivation of scaling factors from a time-variant least squares analysis of the amplitude spectra of each frequency-limited dataset. Contributions to the composite from each nominal acquisition frequency are clear, and the trace averaged amplitude spectrum of the corresponding composite is broadened uniformly over a bandwidth approaching two-octaves. Improvements to wavelet resolution are clear when a composite radargram is treated with a spiking deconvolution algorithm. Such improvement suggests that multiple-frequency compositing is a useful imaging tool, and a promising foundation for improving deconvolution of GPR data.     

Retrieving virtual reflection responses at drill‐bit positions using seismic interferometry with drill‐bit noise

In the field of seismic interferometry, researchers have retrieved surface waves and body waves by cross‐correlating recordings of uncorrelated noise sources to extract useful subsurface information. The retrieved wavefields in most applications are between receivers. When the positions of the noise sources are known, inter‐source interferometry can be applied to retrieve the wavefields between sources, thus turning sources into virtual receivers. Previous applications of this form of interferometry assume impulsive point sources or transient sources with similar signatures. We investigate the requirements of applying inter‐source seismic interferometry using non‐transient noise sources with known positions to retrieve reflection responses at those positions and show the results using synthetic drilling noise as source. We show that, if pilot signals (estimates of the drill‐bit signals) are not available, it is required that the drill‐bit signals are the same and that the phases of the virtual reflections at drill‐bit positions can be retrieved by deconvolution interferometry or by cross‐coherence interferometry. Further, for this case, classic interferometry by cross‐correlation can be used if the source power spectrum can be estimated. If pilot signals are available, virtual reflection responses can be obtained by first using standard seismic‐while‐drilling processing techniques such as pilot cross‐correlation and pilot deconvolution to remove the drill‐bit signatures in the data and then applying cross‐correlation interferometry. Therefore, provided that pilot signals are reliable, drill‐bit data can be redatumed from surface to borehole depths using this inter‐source interferometry approach without any velocity information of the medium, and we show that a well‐positioned image below the borehole can be obtained using interferometrically redatumed reflection responses with just a simple velocity model. We discuss some of the practical hurdles that restrict the application of the proposed method offshore.     

GPR prospecting in a prehispanic village,NW Argentina

Palo Blanco is an approximately 1600 year old archaeological site located in Fiambalá Valley, in the Andean region of Argentina. Pioneer archaeological studies published in the 70s reported the existence of five residential units in this site. Also a small cemetery which included three circular tombs was discovered near to these buildings. Since that time, a profuse sedimentation covered the zone, so nowadays there are no evidences of most of these buildings on surface. Because of an imprecise location of the structures, most of the buildings became in fact missed. Then, in this work we aimed to re-localize two of the missed buildings, a residential unit and a tomb, by applying ground penetrating radar (GPR) methodology. We used fast fixed offset GPR configurations to investigate two areas in which these buildings could be expected. We used experimental and synthetic patterns to aid the identification of the characteristic signals due to the archaeological targets. We applied migration to the data to better define and resolve unclear anomalous signals. The employed methodology revealed the location of both buildings. Also a number of new non-reported structures were predicted and confirmed.     

Application of sub-image multiresolution analysis of Ground-penetrating radar data in a study of shallow structures

Fourier-based algorithms originally developed for the processing of seismic data are applied routinely in the Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data processing, but these conventional methods of data processing may result in an abundance of spurious harmonics without any geological meaning. We propose a new approach in this study based essentially on multiresolution wavelet analysis (MRA) for GPR noise suppression. The 2D GPR section is similar to an image in all aspects if we consider each data point of the GPR section to be an image pixel in general. This technique is an image analysis with sub-image decomposition. We start from the basic image decomposition procedure using conventional MRA approach and establish the filter bank accordingly. With reasonable knowledge of data and noise and the basic assumption of the target, it is possible to determine the components with high S/N ratio and eliminate noisy components. The MRA procedure is performed further for the components containing both signal and noise. We treated the selected component as an original image and applied the MRA procedure again to that single component with a mother wavelet of higher resolution. This recursive procedure with finer input allows us to extract features or noise events from GPR data more effectively than conventional process.To assess the performance of the MRA filtering method, we first test this method on a simple synthetic model and then on experimental data acquired from a control site using 400 MHz GPR system. A comparison of results from our method and from conventional filtering techniques demonstrates the effectiveness of the sub-image MRA method, particularly in removing ringing noise and scattering events. Field study was carried out in a trenched fault zone where a faulting structure was present at shallow depths ready for understanding the feasibility of improving the data S/N ratio by applying the sub-image multiresolution analysis. In contrast to the conventional methods, the MRA sub-image filtering technique provides an overall improvement in image quality of the data as shown in the field study.     

基于小波能谱分析的岩溶区探地雷达目标识别

目前常用的根据记录波形的频率、振幅等特征进行岩溶区探地雷达目标识别的方式具有一定的局限性,为此提出了利用小波能量谱特征进行识别的新方法.通过对岩溶区典型样本进行分析,构造雷达信号各频率成分在各尺度上的能量特征向量,得到样本模型的能量谱,将待识别目标体的能量谱特征与之比对,数据分析和实际验证表明,小波特征能量谱具有直观地显示目标信号不同特征的优点,能有效地对岩溶区探地雷达剖面目标体进行识别.     

Measurement of stream cross section using ground penetration radar with Hilbert–Huang transform

This study presents a new method to measure stream cross section without having contact with water. Compared with conventional measurement methods which apply instruments such as sounding weight, ground penetration radar (GPR), used in this study, is a non‐contact measurement method. This non‐contact measurement method can reduce the risk to hydrologists when they are conducting measurements, particularly in high flow period. However, the original signals obtained by using GPR are very complex, different from studies in the past where the measured data were mostly interpreted by experts with special skill or knowledge of GPR so that the results obtained were less objective. This study employs Hilbert–Huang transform (HHT) to process GPR signals which are difficult to interpret by hydrologists. HHT is a newly developed signal processing method that can not only process the nonlinear and non‐stationary complex signals, but also maintain the physical significance of the signal itself. Using GPR with HHT, this study establishes a non‐contact stream cross‐section measurement method with the ability to measure stream cross‐sectional areas precisely and quickly. Also, in comparison with the conventional method, no significant difference in results is found to exist between the two methods, but the new method can considerably reduce risk, measurement time, and manpower. It is proven that the non‐contact method combining GPR with HHT is applicable to quickly and accurately measure stream cross section. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Detection and extraction of orientation-and-scale-dependent information from two-dimensional GPR data with tuneable directional wavelet filters

The Ground Probing Radar (GPR) is a valuable tool for near surface geological, geotechnical, engineering, environmental, archaeological and other work. GPR images of the subsurface frequently contain geometric information (constant or variable-dip reflections) from various structures such as bedding, cracks, fractures, etc. Such features are frequently the target of the survey; however, they are usually not good reflectors and they are highly localized in time and in space. Their scale is therefore a factor significantly affecting their detectability. At the same time, the GPR method is very sensitive to broadband noise from buried small objects, electromagnetic anthropogenic activity and systemic factors, which frequently blurs the reflections from such targets.This paper introduces a method to de-noise GPR data and extract geometric information from scale-and-dip dependent structural features, based on one-dimensional B-Spline Wavelets, two-dimensional directional B-Spline Wavelet (BSW) Filters and two-dimensional Gabor Filters. A directional BSW Filter is built by sidewise arranging s identical one-dimensional wavelets of length L, tapering the s-parallel direction (span) with a suitable window function and rotating the resulting matrix to the desired orientation. The length L of the wavelet defines the temporal and spatial scale to be isolated and the span determines the length over which to smooth (spatial resolution). The Gabor Filter is generated by multiplying an elliptical Gaussian by a complex plane wave; at any orientation the temporal or spatial scale(s) to be isolated are determined by the wavelength. λ of the plane wave and the spatial resolution by the spatial aspect ratio γ, which specifies the ellipticity of the support of the Gabor function. At any orientation, both types of filter may be tuned at any frequency or spatial wavenumber by varying the length or the wavelength respectively. The filters can be applied directly to two-dimensional radargrams, in which case they abstract information about given scales at given orientations. Alternatively, they can be rotated to different orientations under adaptive control, so that they remain tuned at a given frequency or wavenumber and the resulting images can be stacked in the LS sense, so as to obtain a complete representation of the input data at a given temporal or spatial scale.In addition to isolating geometrical information for further scrutiny, the proposed filtering methods can be used to enhance the S/N ratio in a manner particularly suitable for GPR data, because the frequency response of the filters mimics the frequency characteristics of the source wavelet. Finally, signal attenuation and temporal localization are closely associated: low attenuation interfaces tend to produce reflections rich in high frequencies and fine-scale localization as a function of time. Conversely, high attenuation interfaces will produce reflections rich in low frequencies and broad localization. Accordingly, the temporal localization characteristics of the filters may be exploited to investigate the characteristics of signal propagation (hence material properties). The method is shown to be very effective in extracting fine to coarse scale information from noisy data and is demonstrated with applications to noisy GPR data from archaeometric and geotechnical surveys.     

A combined strategy for landmine detection and identification using synthetic GPR responses

Synthetic Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) target responses may be successfully used for buried landmine classification purposes. This paper demonstrates that accurately simulated one-dimensional temporal signatures can be employed as reference waveforms for efficient clutter suppression and improved target detection/recognition. The proposed methodology is a combined approach consisting of a cross-correlation based identification algorithm and an energy based detection algorithm. The former can be implemented before conducting the detection as an additional filtering step in the form of a similarity constraint between measured and synthetic scattered signals. The application of the combined method to experimental data yields a clear gain in the detection sensitivity, particularly for those mines which are most difficult to detect through scattered energy considerations alone. Moreover, an adapted Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) averaging has been incorporated to enhance the quality of the imaging and to rise the Signal-to-Clutter ratio (SCR) of the resulting maps. This strategy can help to substantially reduce the number of false alarms and speed up the clearance labors.     

多次覆盖技术在探地雷达勘探中的应用

多次覆盖技术作为一种增强信号、压制干扰的方法,广泛用于地震勘探工作中,可以大大提高有用信号的信噪比。本文作者把多次覆盖技术引入探地雷达测量工作中,通过与剖面法作对比试验来论证多次覆盖技术在探地雷达勘探中应用的可行性及优缺点。作者根据试验资料总结探地雷达工作中雷达波传播规律、工作参数、资料处理方法,对丰富探地雷达勘探技术作了一次有益的尝试。     

全极化探地雷达正演模拟

全极化探地雷达不但能获取当前探地雷达使用的共极化信息,而且能使用交叉极化信息,进而更好地分析目标属性.本文在时域有限差分法的基础上,构建了全极化探地雷达的正演模拟方法,通过水平正交双方向同时接收获取全极化信息.标准目标体金属板和角反射器的正演模拟与实验室物理模型测试一致的共极化和交叉极化响应信息,证实了该正演模拟方法的...     

基于局部采样MCMC方法的时移探地雷达反演

马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛方法(MCMC)是一种启发式的全局寻优算法,可以用来解决概率反演的问题.基于MCMC方法的反演不依赖于准确的初始模型,可以引入任意复杂的先验信息,通过对先验概率密度函数的采样来获得大量的后验概率分布样本,在寻找最优解的过程中可以跳出局部最优得到全局最优解.MCMC方法由于计算量巨大,应用难度较高,在地...     

自适应Chirplet变换及其在探地雷达目标探测中的应用(英文)

探地雷达不仅能够探测金属目标体,而且能够探测非金属目标体,而成为UX0和地雷探测的一种重要的浅部地球物理方法。但是在地雷和UX0探测中,目标体埋藏深度浅,在探地雷达数据信噪比较低情况下,地表和土壤层的反射严重干扰对目标体的拾取。本文采用自适用Chirplet变换来消除地表层和土壤层变化的干扰,并在Radon—Wigner分布的基础上,采用自适用Chirplet变换来拾取目标体的信号。通过对实际探测实验数据应用证明,本方法处理结果比传统的偏移方法具有较高的信噪比,并能清晰地提取目标体信号。     

Changes of GPR spectra due to the presence of hydrocarbon contamination in the ground

The location of hydrocarbon contamination in the ground using the GPR method is based mainly on information taken from reflected signals. In the cases investigated in Polish contaminated sites, such signals were very seldom recorded. A long time after spillage, contamination takes the form of plumes with different size and distribution, which depends on geological and hydraulic properties of the ground. In this paper, it is shown that the set of hydrocarbon plumes should be described with a stochastic model, and such plumes may generate the scattered waves which cause changes in the power spectra. It has been observed that the power spectra of GPR signals over contaminated areas are quite different from such spectra over clear ones. These differences were discussed in this paper on the basis of theoretical analysis, numerical modelling and the results of GPR terrain surveys.     

频散介质中地质雷达波传播的数值模拟

地质雷达所探测的地球介质常常具有频散性．为了研究地质雷达在频散介质中的探测能力,提出了频散介质中时间域有限差分法计算麦克斯韦方程的方法,给出了满足Debye关系的频散介质中的电位移和磁场的迭代算法,以及由电位移计算电场的算法．只有在电场计算时才用到介质的物性参数．提出一种新的吸收边界条件的算法,通过增加假想的介电常数和磁导率,实现了吸收层中波的无反射衰减,克服了以往Berenger完全匹配层计算时对场进行分裂带来的麻烦,从而提高了计算效率．计算实例表明,频散介质中电磁波的衰减更快,测量信号变得很弱．     

探地雷达应用概述

以ASTM标准规范为基础对探地雷达（Ground Penetrating Radar 以下简称GPR）的地下探测方法的应用做了比较系统的概述,主要内容包括：部分专业术语的解释;测试过程中雷达探测深度及其中心频率、垂直分辨率、水平分辨率等的关系,测试过程中常见的天线移动方式,以及雷达波速的预测几种方法,数据显示方式;雷达数据解释和数据处理的一般过程及方法.目前我国尚没有关于GPR的国家规范或行业标准,文章对GPR的使用及规范的编制具有一定的参考意义.     

探地雷达衰减补偿逆时偏移成像方法

探地雷达信号在地下介质中传播时易受到电导率所产生的衰减影响,从而使得传统偏移成像结果在高衰减区域变得模糊.本文提出了衰减补偿的逆时偏移方法来消除电导率的影响.该方法基于麦克斯韦方程组实现电磁波的正演模拟和逆时传播.通过改变衰减项的正负号,保证了逆时传播的时间对称性,从而能够重构出原始波场,实现衰减补偿.数值实验比较了传统逆时偏移方法和衰减补偿逆时偏移方法在存在高导异常区域情况下的成像效果,结果证明了衰减补偿逆时偏移方法能够很好地恢复由电导率造成的信号衰减,从而提高探地雷达剖面的分辨率.     

Characterizing the energy distribution around GPR antennas

Antenna height, orientation, shielding and subsurface properties all impact GPR responses. Although the basic concepts are generally understood, clarifying the key relationships can aid interpretation. Our long term goal is to develop easily parameterized models of transmitting and receiving components of GPR systems that will provide for quantitative interpretation of data acquired with real systems. Our first step was to develop modeling capacity and response presentation tools to help with development; the initial results have been both informative and forced a better understanding of near and far field.We are using three-dimensional (3D) finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) modeling. Model results can be presented in a variety of forms. In this paper, we focus on presenting the emitted energy characteristics and use radiation pattern display format for infinitesimal dipoles, resistively loaded dipoles and shielded dipoles. Patterns are computed for a range of environments such as free-space and over loss-less half-spaces with various properties. The energy distribution patterns are presented to investigate the behavior with distance away from the transmitter feed point, and as a function of height above the ground surface.The numerical simulations provide expected insights plus demonstrate the benefit of ground-coupling and the impact of shielding on GPR responses. Further, using the total radiated energy parameter is a novel method for displaying directivity, for GPR transient emissions.