Measurements of tidal gravity and load deformations on Unst (Shetlands)

Summary The tidal gravimetric factor due to the elastic yielding of the Earth has been determined by gravimetric measurements on Unst (Shetland Islands), extending over the time of one month. Its corrected value isG=1.205±0.03. The influence of applying different methods of harmonic analysis, and the effects of ambient temperature and pressures and of the sea tides on the gravimetric results are discussed. No significant difference inG for semi-diurnal and diurnal tides remains after the necessary corrections have been made. The amplitude of the semidiurnal load depression is about 2 cm and it is shown that the more distant North Atlantic tides have a greater effect than the regional tides near the Shetlands. An approximate calculation gives 4.3×10¹¹ CGS-units as the mean rigidity of the part of the Earth's crust yielding to the maritime loading differences in this region.     

High resolution mapping of Earth tide response based on GPS data in Japan

We observe the Earth tidal fields at diurnal and semi-diurnal periods using Kinematic Precise Point Positioning (KPPP) GPS analysis. Our KPPP GPS solutions compare well with super-conducting gravimeter (SG) observations and a theoretical Earth tidal model, that includes both ocean tide loading model and body tides. We make a high resolution map of the observed Earth tidal response fields using the Japanese GEONET GPS network which consists of 1200 sites. We find that: (1) the average phase of GPS data lags 0.11 ± 0.04° from our theoretical Earth tidal model, (2) the average amplitude ratio between GPS and the theoretical Earth tidal model is 1.007 ± 0.003, (3) the amplitude in the Kyushu district is about 1.0–1.5 ± 0.3% larger than in the Hokkaido district, and (4) the amplitude at the Japan Sea side is about 0.5 ± 0.2% larger than that at the Pacific Ocean side. These results suggest that we may be able to place constraints on Earth structure using GPS-derived tidal information.     

Integrated satellite observations of the 2001 eruption of Mt. Cleveland, Alaska

Satellite data were the primary source of information for the eruption of Mt. Cleveland, Alaska on 19 February, and 11 and 19 March 2001. Multiple data sets were used pre-, syn- and post-eruption to mitigate the hazard and determine an eruption chronology. The 19 February eruption was the largest of the three, resulting in a volcanic cloud that formed an arc over 1000 km long, moved to the NE across Alaska and was tracked using satellite data over more than a 50-h period. The volcanic cloud was “concurrently” detected on the GOES, AVHRR and MODIS data at various times and their respective signals compared. All three sensors detected a cloud that had a very similar shape and position but there were differences in their areal extent and internal structural detail. GOES data showed the largest volcanic cloud in terms of area, probably due to its oblique geometry. MODIS bands 31 and 32, which are comparable to GOES and AVHRR thermal infrared wavelengths, were the least effective single channels at detecting the volcanic cloud of those investigated (MODIS bands 28, 29, 31 and 32). MODIS bands 28 and 29 detected the largest volcanic clouds that could easily be distinguished from weather clouds. Of the split-window data, MODIS bands 29 minus band 32 detected the largest cloud, but the band 31 minus band 32 data showed the volcanic cloud with the most internal structural detail. The Puff tracking model accurately tracked the movement, and predicted the extent and shape of this complex cloud even into areas beyond satellite detection. Numerous thermal anomalies were also observed during the eruption on the twice-daily AVHRR data and the high spatial-resolution Landsat data. The high-resolution Radarsat data showed that the AVHRR thermal anomalies were due to lava and debris flow features and a newly formed fan along the west coast of the island. Field observations and images from a hand-held Forward Looking Infrared Radiometer (FLIR) showed that the flow features were ′a′a lava, debris flows and a warm debris fan along the west coast. Real-time satellite data were the primary tool used to monitor the eruption, track changes and to mitigate hazards. High-resolution data, even though coverage is infrequent, were critical in helping to identify volcanic processes and to compile an eruption chronology.     

Body tides on a 3-D elastic earth: Toward a tidal tomography

The deformational and gravitational response of the Earth to the tide generating potential has generally involved 1-D (i.e., depth varying) Earth models. Progressive improvement in observational constraints on body tides, generated from both ground and space-based surveys, suggests that an examination of the potential impact of lateral variations in Earth structure is warranted. We present a suite of predictions of the body tide response within the semi-diurnal, diurnal and long-period tidal bands computed using a finite-volume numerical code. The calculations adopt 3-D density and elastic structure taken from seismic inferences and, in a subset of the calculations, dynamic topography on the surface and internal interfaces. We find that perturbations in the radial displacement and surface gravity within the semi-diurnal band reach ~ 1 mm and 0.15 µgal, respectively. The perturbations in the diurnal band are comparable to these values, and within the long-period band they are a factor of 3–5 smaller. We also demonstrate that lateral variations in the elastic moduli, which have been ignored in recent work, contribute greater than 50% of the total perturbation. The level of perturbation associated with 3-D structure exceeds the current observational uncertainty obtainable using space-geodetic methods, and this suggests the possibility of performing tidal tomographic inversions of such data.     

Influence Of The Atmosphere On Earth Rotation: What New Can Be Learned From The Recent Atmospheric Angular Momentum Estimates?

The interaction between the atmosphere and the underlying solid mantle is oneof the most important sources of changes in all three components of theEarth's rotation vector on different time scales. In this paper the NCEP/NCARreanalysis time series of four times daily atmospheric effective angularmomentum (EAM) estimates is used to investigate some selected aspects of theatmospheric influence on Earth rotation. Emphasis is placed on thecontroversial features which were difficult or impossible to study using theoperational EAM data, such as excitation of the free oscillations in polarmotion, the Chandler wobble (CW) and the free core nutation (FCN), or theroles of diurnal and semidiurnal atmospheric tides and atmospheric normalmodes in the rotational dynamics of the Earth.     

基于夜间多时相遥感数据的热异常与地震的相关性

本文使用第二代欧洲气象卫星MSG搭载的SEVIRI传感器数据,基于卫星数据稳健分析技术提取了意大利地区2015—2017年间的三次热异常,并在此基础上增加热异常的判定条件,利用静止气象卫星的高时间分辨率特性,基于夜间多时相遥感数据探究热异常与地震的相关性.结果显示:通过夜间多时相遥感数据均值可更清晰地展示出研究区热异常...     

Intensity of geomagnetic field in the Precambrian and evolution of the Earth’s deep interior

Reliable data on the paleointensity of the geomagnetic field can become an important source of information both about the mechanisms of generation of the field at present and in the past, and about the internal structure of the Earth, especially the structure and evolution of its core. Unfortunately, the reliability of these data remains a serious problem of paleomagnetic research because of the limitations of experimental methods, and the complexity and diversity of rocks and their magnetic carriers. This is true even for relatively “young” Phanerozoic rocks, but investigation of Precambrian rocks is associated with many additional difficulties. As a consequence, our current knowledge of paleointensity, especially in the Precambrian period, is still very limited. The data limitations do not preclude attempts to use the currently available paleointensity results to analyze the evolution and characteristics of the Earth’s internal structure, such as the age of the Earth’s solid inner core or thermal conductivity in the liquid core. However, such attempts require considerable caution in handling data. In particular, it has now been reliably established that some results on the Precambrian paleointensity overestimate the true paleofield strength. When the paleointensity overestimates are excluded from consideration, the range of the field strength changes in the Precambrian does not exceed the range of its variation in the Phanerozoic. This result calls into question recent assertions that the Earth’s inner core formed in the Mesoproterozoic, about 1.3 billion years ago, triggering a statistically significant increase in the long-term average field strength. Instead, our analysis has shown that the quantity and quality of the currently available data on the Precambrian paleointensity are insufficient to estimate the age of the solid inner core and, therefore, cannot be useful for solving the problem of the thermal conductivity of the Earth’s core. The data are consistent with very young or very “old” inner core ages and, correspondingly, with high or low values of core thermal conductivity.     

Earth tides

The main geometrical characteristics and mechanical properties of bodily tides are described, using the convenient elastic parameters of Love. The problem of the Earth's deformation is a problem of spherical elasticity of the sixth order. The importance of Earth tides in astronomy and geophysics is emphasized by their relation to the precession-nutation and tesseral tidal problems, the secular retardation of the Earth's speed of rotation due to the dissipation of energy in sectorial tides, the periodic variations of the speed of rotation due to zonal tides, the satellite orbit perturbations due to the Earth's potential variation, and the radial deformations in laser distance measurements. The possibility that dynamical effects would be produced in the Earth's liquid core was pointed out by Poincaré and developed by Jeffreys, Vicente, and Molodensky. An experimental confirmation is presented here. The role of the Earth tide phenomenon in gravimetry and oceanography is also described, as are the perturbing effects due to regional tectonic features. Instrumental developments are critical in the acquisition of precise data; the calibration problem is fundamental for a correct comparison with Earth models.     

A global experimental model for gravity tides of the Earth

The long-term, continuous and high-quality tidal gravity data, recorded with the superconducting gravimeters (SGs) at 19 stations in the Global Geodynamics Project (GGP), were simultaneously used to investigate the global pattern of the tidal gravity variations. The atmospheric effects were removed from the gravity observations by using the simultaneous pressure records at the stations. A total of six global co-tidal models were employed to remove the loading effects of oceanic tides. The resonance parameters of the Earth's free core nutation (FCN), as well as the spheroidal constant components in the gravimetric factors of waves O₁ and M₂, were accurately retrieved. As a result, a global experimental model for gravity tides (GEMGT) was developed, considering the nearly diurnal resonance and the latitude-dependence of the gravimetric amplitude factors. The final results indicate that the mean discrepancy of the four main tidal waves (i.e. O₁, K₁, M₂ and S₂) between the GEMGT and SG observations is less than 0.2% on average. The GEMGT is in good agreement with the theoretical models based on the inelastic non-hydrostatic equilibrium Earth models [Dehant, V., Defraigne, P., Wahr, J., 1999. Tides for a convective Earth. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 1035–1058; Mathews, P.M., 2001. Love numbers and gravimetric factor for diurnal tides. J. Geodetic Soc. Jpn. 46 (4), 231–236] with a mean discrepancy less than 0.15%. However, the GEMGT is in closer accordance with the theoretical model given by Mathews [Mathews, P.M., 2001. Love numbers and gravimetric factor for diurnal tides. J. Geodetic Soc. Jpn. 46 (4), 231–236] for the diurnal tides while it is in closer agreement with one obtained by Dehant et al. [Dehant, V., Defraigne, P., Wahr, J., 1999. Tides for a convective Earth. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 1035–1058] for the semi-diurnal tides.     

A STUDY ON THE ALGORITHM FOR EXTRACTING EARTHQUAKE THERMAL INFRARED ANOMALIES BASED ON THE YEARLY TREND OF LST

There are thermal infrared anomalies(TIA)before earthquake, and TIA has become one of the important parameters for assessing regional earthquake risk. However, not all of the surface infrared anomalies are related to tectonic activities or earthquakes. How to eliminate the influence of non-structural factors and extract the weak signals from strong disturbances is the key and difficult point for tectonic activities studies based on the thermal infrared remote sensing techniques. Land surface temperature(LST)background field is the basis for thermal infrared anomalies extraction. However, the established background fields in previous researches cannot eliminate the influence of climate changes, so the accuracy of thermal anomaly extraction is limited. Now an improved method is proposed. Combined with the periodic character of LST time series, harmonic analysis is lead into the process of LST background field establishment. Specifically, the yearly trend of LST is fitted based on Fourier Approximation method. As a new background field, the yearly trend is dynamic, includes the local and the yearly information. Then, based on the rule of "kσ", the earthquake anomalies, calculated by RST with the yearly trend of LST, can be extracted. At last, the effectiveness of the algorithm can be tested by the quantitative analysis of anomalies with anomaly area statistics, anomaly intensity statistics and distance index statistics. The Wenchuan earthquake was discussed again based on the proposed algorithm with MODIS land temperature products in 2008. The results show that, there were obvious pre-earthquake thermal anomalies along the Longmen Mountains faults with a longer time; but there were no anomalies when the earthquake happened; and the post-earthquake thermal anomalies occurred with much smaller amplitudes and scopes. Compared with the results derived from the traditional RST which is based on the spatial average of LST values, the TIA extracted by the new RST, which is based on the yearly trend of LST, is more fit with the active faults, and the process of the anomalies occurring and removing can be described in more detail. Therefore, as the background field to extract earthquake anomalies, the yearly trend of LST is more reliable.     

Natural and man-made induced hydrological signals,detected by high resolution tilt observations at the Geodynamic Observatory Moxa/Germany

It is well known, that high resolution borehole tiltmeters are able to observe deformations, caused by hydrological variations. The quantitative coherence is often unexplained, especially if the sources of deformation can be based on both natural as well as man-made hydrological variations. Since 1999 tilt observations have been taken at the Geodynamic Observatory Moxa in Thuringia/Germany. In two 50 m and one 100 m deep boreholes the ASKANIA tiltmeters are installed. The high quality of the recorded tilt data can be proved by the analysis of well known geodynamic signals like the tides of the solid Earth and the free modes of the Earth. Here we focus on investigations of induced tilt signals caused by pore pressure changes due to precipitation and/or ground water level changes and, in addition, on man-made induced pore pressure variations. The correlation of natural ground water level changes with the observed tilt data can be shown by different events of precipitation and snow melting. However, also the load effect of a big truck yields a small elastic deformation which is clearly detectable in the ground water level recording. The correlated tilt effect is discussed regarding changes of the tilt amplitude and the orientation of the induced pendulum tip movement during the load phase.     

Estimating the distribution of snow water equivalent using remotely sensed snow cover data and a spatially distributed snowmelt model: A multi-resolution,multi-sensor comparison

Time series of fractional snow covered area (SCA) estimates from Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data were combined with a spatially distributed snowmelt model to reconstruct snow water equivalent (SWE) in the Rio Grande headwaters (3419 km²). In this reconstruction approach, modeled snowmelt over each pixel is integrated during the period of satellite-observed snow cover to estimate SWE. Due to underestimates in snow cover detection, maximum basin-wide mean SWE using MODIS and AVHRR were, respectively, 45% and 68% lower than SWE estimates obtained using ETM+ data. The mean absolute error (MAE) of SWE estimated at 100-m resolution using ETM+ data was 23% relative to observed SWE from intensive field campaigns. Model performance deteriorated when MODIS (MAE = 50%) and AVHRR (MAE = 89%) SCA data were used. Relative to differences in the SCA products, model output was less sensitive to spatial resolution (MAE = 39% and 73% for ETM+ and MODIS simulations run at 1 km resolution, respectively), indicating that SWE reconstructions at the scale of MODIS acquisitions may be tractable provided the SCA product is improved. When considering tradeoffs between spatial and temporal resolution of different sensors, our results indicate that higher spatial resolution products such as ETM+ remain more accurate despite the lower frequency of acquisition. This motivates continued efforts to improve MODIS snow cover products.     

Analysis of volcanic activity patterns using MODIS thermal alerts

We investigate eruptive activity by analysis of thermal-alert data from the MODIS (moderate resolution imaging spectrometer) thermal infrared satellite instrument, detected by the MODVOLC (MODIS Volcano alert) algorithm. These data are openly available on the Internet, and easy to use. We show how such data can plug major gaps in the conventional monitoring record of volcanoes in an otherwise generally poorly documented region (Melanesia), including: characterising the mechanism of lava effusion at Pago; demonstrating an earlier-than-realised onset of lava effusion at Lopevi; extending the known period of lava lake activity at Ambrym; and confirming ongoing activity at Bagana, Langila and Tinakula. We also add to the record of activity even at some generally better-monitored volcanoes in Indonesia, but point out that care must be taken to recognise and exclude fires.Editorial responsibility: J Stix     

Long-term variations of solar magnetic fields derived from geomagnetic data

There are limited homogeneous instrumental observations of the sunspot magnetic fields, but the Earth is a sort of a probe reacting to interplanetary disturbances which are manifestation of the solar magnetic fields. We find correlations between some parameters of geomagnetic activity (the geomagnetic activity “floor”—the minimum value under which the geomagnetic activity cannot fall in a sunspot cycle, and the rate of increase of the geomagnetic activity with increasing sunspot number), and sunspot magnetic fields (the sunspot magnetic field in the cycle minimum, and the rate of increase of the sunspot magnetic field from cycle minimum to cycle maximum). Based on these correlations we are able to reconstruct the sunspot magnetic fields in sunspot minima and maxima since sunspot cycle 9 (mid 19th century).     

The anomalous tides near Broad Sound

Observations of tidal current and height, in conjunction with theoretical mathematical models are used to investigate the propagation of the tide near Broad Sound, a narrowing estuary situated on a wide section of continental shelf toward the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef. The observations indicate that the dense offshore reefs severely inhibit tidal flow, with the result that tides flood toward Broad Sound from the north and from the south, along the main lagoon. There is a local magnification of the semi-diurnal tides within Broad Sound itself.Models of flow across reefs confirm the effectiveness of dense, shallow, and broad reefs in acting as a barrier to the tide. The diffraction of tides through large gaps in the reef is modelled using conformal mapping techniques and with the inclusion of energy leakage, the diffraction model predicts magnification of the semi-diurnal tidal heights by a factor of about 4 and a phase lag of 3 h on the shelf near Broad Sound, these values being consistent with observation. The observed convergence of the tide close to, and within Broad Sound itself is consistent with the proximity of the semi-diurnal tidal period to the natural period for flow in Broad Sound, considered as a narrowing estuary. This results in further amplification, by an additional factor of about 1.5, so that the tides in Broad Sound are increased by a factor of between 5 and 6, altogether, compared with those elsewhere on the east Australian coast.     

Fundamental changes in the activity of the natrocarbonatite volcano Oldoinyo Lengai, Tanzania

On September 4, 2007, after 25 years of effusive natrocarbonatite eruptions, the eruptive activity of Oldoinyo Lengai (OL), N Tanzania, changed abruptly to episodic explosive eruptions. This transition was preceded by a voluminous lava eruption in March 2006, a year of quiescence, resumption of natrocarbonatite eruptions in June 2007, and a volcano-tectonic earthquake swarm in July 2007. Despite the lack of ground-based monitoring, the evolution in OL eruption dynamics is documented based on the available field observations, ASTER and MODIS satellite images, and almost-daily photos provided by local pilots. Satellite data enabled identification of a phase of voluminous lava effusion in the 2 weeks prior to the onset of explosive eruptions. After the onset, the activity varied from 100 m high ash jets to 2–15 km high violent, steady or unsteady, eruption columns dispersing ash to 100 km distance. The explosive eruptions built up a ∼400 m wide, ∼75 m high intra-crater pyroclastic cone. Time series data for eruption column height show distinct peaks at the end of September 2007 and February 2008, the latter being associated with the first pyroclastic flows to be documented at OL. Chemical analyses of the erupted products, presented in a companion paper (Keller et al. 2010), show that the 2007–2008 explosive eruptions are associated with an undersaturated carbonated silicate melt. This new phase of explosive eruptions provides constraints on the factors causing the transition from natrocarbonatite effusive eruptions to explosive eruptions of carbonated nephelinite magma, observed repetitively in the last 100 years at OL.     

武汉台重力潮汐长期观测结果

采用武汉台超导重力仪(SG C032)14年多的长期连续观测资料,研究了固体地球对二阶和三阶引潮力的响应特征,精密测定了重力潮汐参数,系统研究了最新的固体潮模型和海潮模型在中国大陆的有效性.采用最新的8个全球海潮模型计算了海潮负荷效应,从武汉台SG C032的观测中成功分离出63个2阶潮汐波群和15个3阶潮汐波群信号,3阶潮波涵盖了周日、半日和1/3日三个频段.重力潮汐观测的精度非常高,标准偏差达到1.116 nm·s^-2,系统反映了非流体静力平衡、非弹性地球对2阶和3阶引潮力的响应特征.结果表明,现有的武汉国际重力潮汐基准在半日频段非常精确,但在周日频段存在比较明显的偏差,需要进一步精化.对于中国大陆的大地测量观测,固体潮可以采用Dehant等考虑地球内部介质非弹性和非流体静力平衡建立的固体潮理论模型或Xu 等基于全球SG观测建立的重力潮汐全球实验模型作为参考和改正模型,海潮负荷效应应该采用Nao99作为改正模型.     

Correlations of clouds,cosmic rays and solar irradiation over the Earth

It is becoming apparent that the correlation of clouds at different altitudes with cosmic rays and solar activity is a matter of complexity. Specifically, evidence has been presented favouring particular regions of the Earth having positive or negative correlations of cloud cover with respect to cosmic rays and to solar irradiation.In this work we examine the evidence critically from several standpoints and conclude that the evidence for a negative correlation of low and a positive correlation for middle cloud cover with solar irradiance (as measured by UV) over a significant fraction of the Earth (20–30%) is good. No other claimed correlations are supported.     

福建地区MODIS卫星热红外资料异常分析

根据MODIS卫星热红外数据,利用透热指数法和亮温增温异常点比值法,分析福建地区地震震前的热红外时空异常变化,发现透热指数与福建地区中等地震有较好的对应关系,而地表的亮温增温异常区与未来发生的地震震中较为接近。