Hydrothermal alteration of plagioclase and growth of secondary feldspar in the Hengill Volcanic Centre, SW Iceland

Dissolution of igneous feldspar and the formation and occurrence of secondary feldspar in tholeiitic basalts from the Hengill volcanic centre, in SW Iceland was studied by microprobe analysis of cuttings from two ca. 2000 m deep geothermal wells. Well NG-7 in Nesjavellir represents a geothermal system in a rift zone where the intensity of young, insignificantly altered intrusions increases with depth. Well KhG-1 in Kolviðarhóll represents the margin of a rift zone where the intensity of intrusives is lower and the intensity of alteration higher. This marginal well represents altered basaltic crust in an early retrograde state. The secondary plagioclase in both wells is mainly oligoclase, occurring in association with K-feldspar and chlorite±actinolite. The texture of this assemblage depends on the lithology and intensity of alteration. In Nesjavellir (NG-7) the composition of secondary albite-oligoclase is correlated with the host-rock composition. This connection is not apparent in more intensely altered samples from Kolviðarhóll (KhG-1). The influence of temperature on composition of secondary Na-feldspar is unclear in both wells although Ca is expected to increase with temperature. Any temperature dependence may be suppressed by the influence of rock composition in Nesjavellir and by retrograde conditions at Kolviðarhóll. The absence of clear compositional gradients between igneous plagioclase and secondary feldspar and between Na-feldspar and K-feldspar suggests that secondary feldspars formed by dissolution precipitation reactions.     

地热深井生产过程的井筒传热数值模拟

从地热储层中提取热流体的过程中,在井筒流体与周围地层之间存在着热量交换,使得热流温度发生着变化,为探究流体在生产井中的热量损失过程,本文的目的 是开发一种可靠的数值模型用以说明地热井在生产过程中的流动与换热问题,在此选取COMSOL Multiphysics建立了仿真模型,并对模拟结果进行了解析验证.井筒热量损失的表征要素除了温度以外,热损失功率也起着至关重要的作用,为了全面评价地热生产井的热能损失,故对井口水温及热损失功率两项评价指标进行研究,分析得出水的操作参数及环空热导率变化对井筒热损失的影响.研究结果表明:(1)数值模拟中应用TD代数表达式的连续形式与解析模型中应用Ramey定义的f(t)不连续函数表达式进行热流温度的求解时,对于较长的生产时间,数值解与解析解吻合良好.(2)井底水温的线性变化也将带来井口水温和井筒热损失功率的线性变化,井口水温和井筒热损失功率随井底水温的变化直线斜率随时间的增加略有减小,纵截距也略有减小,说明时间越长,井口温度升高的越慢,井筒热损失功率增大的越小,系统越趋于稳定状态.(3)增量为10 kg/s的采出流量与增量为10℃的井底水温相比,对井口水温的升高及热损失功率的减小影响程度均相应减弱,最终也将趋于稳定状态.(4)环空热导率对井口水温和井筒热损失功率的影响呈现相反的效应,即环空热导率增大井口水温降低,井筒热损失功率增大.结论 认为,综合考虑热流温度及井筒热损失功率两项指标对于高效地热能开采,提高热能利用率等方面具有重要意义,并可全面评价井筒的热量损失大小,为地热能开发提供可靠理论依据.     

Magnetic studies of basalt fragments recovered by deep drilling in Iceland,and the “magnetic layer” concept

The magnetic susceptibility of 1300 samples of igneous rock drill cuttings obtained from eight deep drill holes in Iceland has been measured, in order to directly provide limits on the thickness of the layer which is the source of the magnetic anomalies over Iceland. The remanent magnetism of some of the material has also been studied, and the variation of magnetic susceptibility in 740 lava flows from eastern Iceland has been analysed as a function of depth of burial.All the results indicate no systematic change of susceptibility with depth up to 2.0 km. The Curie point of all deeply buried basalts in Iceland appears to be close to that of magnetite, so that the magnetic layer may be 5 km or more in thickness when susceptibility contrasts are considered; lateral contrasts in primary remanence may reach to 3 km depth. Derivation of a magnetic layer thickness in Iceland from analyses of magnetic anomalies, using methods which have been conventionally applied to marine magnetic anomalies could, on the other hand, yield much lower apparent thickness values (less than 1 km).We therefore argue that estimates of the magnetic layer thickness in oceanic regions should be based on considerations of magnetite Curie point isotherm behaviour, rather than on anomaly analysis.     

Physical parameters measured on cores and cuttings from the pilot well (0 m–4000.1 m) of the German continental deep drilling program (KTB) in the Oberfalz area,Bavaria, Federal Republic of Germany

The project of an ultradeep drill hole (KTB) in the Oberpfalz area at the western margin of the Bohemian Massif has completed a pilot drill hole to a depth of 4000.1 m in April 1989. This well is situated only about 200m away from the main drill hole aimed at 10 km depth where drilling started in September 1990. The cores of the pilot well have a diameter of 9.4 cm or 10.16 cm, respectively. In addition to cores and cuttings there was also mud available for geochemical, petrological and some geophysical measurements. The pilot drill hole has a core recovery length of as much as 3042.6 m (about 76%), among which 193.1 m were obtained by rotary drilling and 2849.5 m by wireline drilling. Several petrophysical parameters were measured in a specially established field laboratory at the drill site immediately after sampling in order to obtain as good as possible in-situ values. Results for the following parameters are reported: density, natural gamma ray activity, velocities of seismic longitudinal and shear waves, thermal conductivity, electrical resistivity, natural remanent magnetization, magnetic susceptibility, porosity and inner surface. The methods of measurement are characterized briefly and the results of the pilot drill hole are presented and discussed in connection with the lithology and the geophysical anomalies, which have been observed on the surface.     

综合地球物理勘探在齐齐哈尔地区低温地热系统调查中的应用——以HLD1井为例

随着我国"蓝天保卫战"打响,以及快速经济社会发展对清洁能源的需求急剧增加,地热资源因资源量巨大、分布广泛、清洁、可再生、利用率较高等优点,逐渐成为人们关注的热点.本文针对齐齐哈尔龙安桥地区的地热资源开展综合地球物理调查研究,方法包括有可控源音频大地电磁测深、大地电磁测深与反射地震勘探,通过对地热能控热要素——盖层、热储层、热源与导热通道的综合分析,查明了控热要素的空间配置关系,确立了该地区地热系统的成因模式,为该区低温地热资源调查提供有益的指导.通过研究发现,盖层主要为白垩系嫩江组与明水组的泥岩层,盖层厚度大,其中以嫩江组为主的低阻盖层主体埋深范围620 ～ 1020 m;热储层主要为白垩系泉头组、青山口组和姚家组的砂岩层,热储层厚度中等,主要埋深范围1050～ 1350 m;热源——盆地下部与基底的花岗岩、花岗斑岩等酸性岩体富含放射性元素,其衰变生热,以及下部幔源热向上热传导产生的热量;导热通道为热储层内部及下部断裂构造,这些断裂为热量的传导及热液的运移提供了运输通道.最后提出了该区的低温地热系统的成因模式为"层控热盖热储-岩体放射生热与地幔热共同供热-热传导与断裂通道共同导热"的热水系统成因模式.     

Reunion hotspot activitity through tertiary time: Initial results from the ocean drilling program, leg 115

Leg 115 of the Ocean Drilling Program recovered basaltic rocks from four sites along the ancient trail of the Réunion hotspot. The age of volcanism, determined from biostratigraphic data at the four sites, increases to the north and records the motion of India away from the Réunion hotspot through Tertiary time. Hotspot activity began with the eruption of the Deccan flood basalt flows at the time of the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. The Réunion hotspot has been stationary with respect to other hotspots in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean basins through Tertiary time. The geochemical compositions of the drilled basalts differ according to the relative contributions of magmas from hotspot and MORB mantle sources.     

南海深部构造特征及其地质意义:来自重磁位场反演的认识

莫霍面和居里面是认识深部过程重要的地质与地球物理界面.为了进一步理解南海深部构造活动与洋盆扩张的关系,本文以OBS剖面和深反射地震剖面作为约束,对卫星测高重力异常进行海水、沉积层影响校正,采用最小曲率位场分离方法消除局部密度体的重力影响,获取了反映莫霍面起伏的重力异常,并利用双界面模型重力场快速反演方法计算得到了南海地区莫霍面深度值.通过与居里面起伏的对比研究,发现南海莫霍面和居里面整体均表现为"洋盆浅、周缘深"的菱形特征,两者在洋陆转换区呈现明显的窄梯级带特征,反映了南海扩张期岩石圈的强烈伸展减薄、南北向构造拉张作用等深部构造过程.洋盆莫霍面和居里面的西南向楔形形态是对南海由东向西渐进式扩张的深部构造响应.洋盆南部莫霍面浅于北部,这与扩张中心逐渐向南迁移的特征一致,而洋盆居里面南深北浅的特征则可能与洋盆的简单剪切扩张方式以及洋盆北部的岩浆活动更活跃有关.南海地区莫霍面和居里面呈现交错叠置关系,南、北陆缘表现为明显的深部构造差异,说明南海为非对称式扩张.北部陆缘区居里面深度浅于莫霍面,而洋盆区和南部陆缘区居里面深于莫霍面,这与南、北陆缘性质的差异和南部陆缘复杂的中-新生代俯冲碰撞等构造演化相关,而洋盆区居里面深于莫霍面的现象推测与大洋上地幔橄榄岩蛇纹石化导致的岩石磁性增强有关.     

Hydrothermal clays and pyrite in geothermal fields: Their significance for the geochemistry of present-day endogenous processes in southern Kamchatka

The studies reported in this paper were carried out in the Pauzhetka and Nizhne-Koshelevskii geothermal fields situated in the southern Kamchatka Peninsula within the Pauzhetka-Kambalnyi-Koshelevskii geothermal area. Layer-by-layer sampling of clays was carried out by stripping, pitting, and hand-operated drilling of core holes in the Verkhne-Pauzhetka thermal field and the Nizhne-Koshelevskii thermal anomaly, which were studied previously using several geological, geophysical, and hydrogeothermal techniques. Hydrothermal clays were found to compose a nearly continuous sheet on the surface of the thermal field and of the thermal anomaly. The sheet has an average thickness of 1.3 to 1.5 m. The chemical and mineralogic composition of the clays have been characterized. The concentrations of Au, Hg, Pb, and Ag (a total of 41 elements) were determined in clay layers selected every 15–20 cm in vertical sections. The elements show inhomogeneous distributions, both along the strike and in vertical sections of the hydrothermal clay sheet, which can be accounted for by the physicochemical, hydrogeochemical, and temperature conditions prevailing during the generation of these clays in specific areas of the thermal fields. It was found that the hydrothermal clay sheet lying on the ground surface of the geothermal fields has a significance of its own as an independent geological body, not only is it an aquifer and a heat-isolating horizon; it also serves as a dynamically active geochemical barrier in the structure of the present-day hydrothermal system. Pyrite is a concentrator of ore elements in hydrothermal clays, in addition to sulfates of Ca, Fe, Mg, Ba, and Al, and (possibly) alumosilicates.     

Real-time envelope cross-correlation detector: application to induced seismicity in the Insheim and Landau deep geothermal reservoirs

We develop and test a real-time envelope cross-correlation detector for use in seismic response plans to mitigate hazard of induced seismicity. The incoming seismological data are cross-correlated in real-time with a set of previously recorded master events. For robustness against small changes in the earthquake source locations or in the focal mechanisms we cross-correlate the envelopes of the seismograms rather than the seismograms themselves. Two sequenced detection conditions are implemented: After passing a single trace cross-correlation condition, a network cross-correlation is calculated taking amplitude ratios between stations into account. Besides detecting the earthquake and assigning it to the respective reservoir, real-time magnitudes are important for seismic response plans. We estimate the magnitudes of induced microseismicity using the relative amplitudes between master event and detected event. The real-time detector is implemented as a SeisComP3 module. We carry out offline and online performance tests using seismic monitoring data of the Insheim and Landau geothermal power plants (Upper Rhine Graben, Germany), also including blasts from a nearby quarry. The comparison of the automatic real-time catalogue with a manually processed catalogue shows, that with the implemented parameters events are always correctly assigned to the respective reservoir (4 km distance between reservoirs) or the quarry (8 km and 10 km distance, respectively, from the reservoirs). The real-time catalogue achieves a magnitude of completeness around 0.0. Four per cent of the events assigned to the Insheim reservoir and zero per cent of the Landau events are misdetections. All wrong detections are local tectonic events, whereas none are caused by seismic noise.     

Palynological evidence for vegetational and climatic changes from the HQ deep drilling core in Yunnan Province, China

The high-resolution pollen study of a 737.72-m-long lake sediment core in the Heqing Basin of Yunnan Province shows that the vegetation and climate of mountains around the Heqing Basin went through six obvious changes since 2.780 Ma B.P. Namely, Pinus forest occupied most mountains around the studied area and the structure of vertical vegetational belt was simple between 2.780 and 2.729 Ma B.P., reflecting a relatively warm and dry climate. During 2.729―2.608 Ma B.P., the areas of cold-temperate conifer forest (CTCF) and Tsuga forest increased and the structure of vertical vegetational belt became clear. According to percentages of tropical and subtropical elements growing in low-altitude regions rifely increased, we speculate that the increase of CTCF and Tsuga forest areas mainly resulted from strong uplift of mountains which provided upward expanding space and growing condition for these plants. Thus, the climate of the low-altitude regions around the basin was relatively warm and humid. Between 2.608 and 1.553 Ma B.P., Pinus forest occupied most mountains around the studied area and forest line of CTCF rose, which reflects a moderately warm-dry climate on the whole. During 1.553―0.876 Ma B.P., the structure of vertical vegetational belt in mountains around the studied area became complicated and the amplitude of vegetational belts shifting up and down enlarged, which implies that the amplitude of climatic change increased, the climatic associational feature was more complex and the climate was moderately cold at a majority of the stage. During 0.876―0.252 Ma B.P., there were all vertical vegetational belts existing at present in mountains around the studied area. The elements of each belt were more abundant and complex than earlier. At different periods in the stage vertical vegetational belts occurred as expanding or shrinking, and alternated each other. The amplitude of vegetational belts shifting up and down was the maximum in the whole section. This change suggests that the amplitude of climatic change was evidently larger than earlier, but the frequency reduced and the climatic associational feature was more complex. From 0.252 Ma B.P. to the present, the most time was characteristic of the expanding of Pinus forest and semi-humid evergreen broad-leaved forest (SEBF) in mountains around the studied area, while expanding time of other vegetational belts was very short, which reflects a smaller amplitude of cold and warm fluctuation. On the basis of the six obvious cycles of vegetational and climatic changes, there were still many times of secondary vegetational successions and climatic oscillations. Based on the above analysis, the forcing mechanism of vegeta-tional succession and climatic change in the Heqing Basin is further discussed. It is primarily consid-ered that main influential factors were exterior factors such as orbital parameters, etc., but the uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau played a very important function for environmental changes in the Heqing Basin at two times obvious increase of vertical vegetational belts and three climatic transitions.     

Assessing the contribution of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and self-potential (SP) methods for a water well drilling program in fractured/karstified limestones

ERT and SP investigations were conducted in carbonate rocks of the Dinant Synclinorium (Walloon Region of Belgium) to find suitable locations for new water wells in zones with little hydrogeological data. Since boreholes information needed to be representative of the area, large fractured zones were searched for the drillings. Large ERT profiles (320 to 640 m) allowed us to image the resistivity distribution of the first 60 m of the subsurface and to detect and characterize (in terms of direction, width and depth) fractured zones expected to be less resistive. Data errors, depth of investigation (DOI) indexes and sensitivity models were analyzed in order to avoid a misinterpretation of the resulting images. Self-potential measurements were performed along electrical profiles to complement our electrical results. Some negative anomalies possibly related to preferential flow pathways were detected. A drilling campaign was conducted according to geophysical results. ‘Ground truth’ geological data as well as pumping tests information gave us a way to assess the contribution of geophysics to a drilling program. We noticed that all the wells placed in low resistivity zones associated with SP anomalies provide very high yields and inversely, wells drilled in resistive zones or outside SP anomalies are limited in terms of capacity. An apparent coupling coefficient between SP signals and differences in hydraulic heads was also estimated in order to image the water table.     

深井水位对地震波、固体潮和气压的水力响应——以范县井为例

以河南范县井为例,利用不同的水力响应模型分析了井水位对地震波、固体潮和气压的响应特征,并基于相关水力响应模型反演估算了含水层的水力参数。结果显示:在高频加载作用过程中,井-含水层系统中的水流模式以水平向为主,而在低频加载作用过程中,则为水平向和垂直向共存的混合模式;利用周期为10—102 s的高频段的地震波响应模型估算的含水层导水系数值较大,为7.20×10-3 m2/s,利用周期为3.75×104 s的低频段的固体潮响应模型估算的含水层导水系数值较小,为2.02×10-6 m2/s,而利用周期为102—104 s的中等频率段的气压响应模型得到的估算值介于二者之间,为3.44×10-5 m2/s。由此分析认为,在周期性加载作用过程中,井-含水层系统内的水流模式与加载频率有关,基于不同水力响应模型反演估算的含水层水力参数存在尺度效应。本研究取得的认识,既可为井水位动态响应的机理解释提供理论基础,也可为目标含水层水力参数的原位测量提供技术支撑。     

Compositional variation in the 1983 and other recent Etnean lavas: Insights on the shallow feeding system

A systematic petrographic and chemical study of chronologically ordered lava samples collected during the 1983 Etna eruption, has shown minor fluctuating variations in crystallinity and chemistry, apparently correlated with variations in the rate of effusion. Comparison with the compositional variations observed in the lavas emitted during the 1971–1983 period, has revealed a repeated evolutional tendency suggesting a small size shallow storage system periodically refilled, as in 1983, by more primitive magma.     

Water/rock interaction in the Kızılcahamam Geothermal Field, Galatian Volcanic Province (Turkey): a modelling study of a geothermal system for reinjection well locations

The Kızılcahamam geothermal field is emplaced in Tertiary-aged volcanic units 70 km NW of Ankara (Turkey). Data for this low-temperature (74–86°C) geothermal field regarding the fracture zone system were obtained from surface manifestations (hot springs, alteration zones), five exploration wells (MTA-2, -3, -4, -5, -6) and two production wells (KHD-1, MTA-1). The Kızılcahamam reservoir developed along the Kızılcahamam fault zone and so the production wells (180–1556 m) effect each other due to their limited separation. Meteoric water enters from a recharge area NE of Kızılcahamam, circulates and gains heat through the fault zone, and discharges to the surface.Detailed petrographical studies have been carried out with samples taken from surface rocks, cores, and cuttings from three wells (KHD-1, MTA-2, -3). X-ray diffraction techniques were also used in the present study. Kaolinite and montmorillonite zones were identified at outcrop samples. Chloritization, clay mineralization, sericitization and carbonization were determined in the ground mass of samples from wells. The observed alteration mineral assemblages indicate that Kızılcahamam geothermal system has been cooling since the alteration minerals formed.The exploration well MTA-3 seems to be more suitable for a reinjection well than the other wells (MTA-2, -6), even if the cost of surface piping to transport the waste water to MTA-3 is higher than to another well (MTA-6).     

Groundwater Quality in the Yucatan Peninsula: Insights from Stable Isotope and Metals Analysis

High surface water-groundwater connectivity characterizes watersheds underlain by karsts, increasing contaminant transport risks. However, karsts are highly complex, making research necessary to understand the transport of contaminants from the surface, through the aquifer, to discharge areas. In Yucatan, the lack of waste water treatment raises the risk of groundwater contamination. We monitored stable isotopes (δ¹⁸O-NO₃ and δ¹⁵N-NO₃), cadmium, and lead to document waste water contamination and transport during the rainy and dry seasons, using water samples collected along the Ring of Cenotes during each season. Specific conductance and pH showed no consistent seasonality, with conductance ranging from 0.5 to 55 mS/cm and pH ranging from 6.6 to 8.6 for most samples. Nitrate concentrations in the cenotes averaged 205 ± 260 μM and no seasonal pattern was observed. Cd and Pb concentrations were 0.1 to 37.9 μg/L and 0.2 to 243.2 μg/L, respectively. Nitrate stable isotope values were 2.6 to 27.2‰ for δ¹⁸O and 1.2 to 20.7‰ for δ¹⁵N. The statistical relationship between δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O, in dry season samples, indicated that denitrification was occurring. A scale measure for waste water recognition showed: (1) high variability among sites probably related with dry/rainy seasons and/or diverse anthropogenic activities; and (2) specific water quality variables that contribute to contamination at each site during each season. Importantly, our analyses indicate that in the area surrounding the Ring of Cenotes, waste water exhibits spatial and temporal patterns related to complex transport and dilution processes, as is the case in karsts in general.     

Fluids in early stage hydrothermal alteration of high-sulfidation epithermal systems: A view from the Vulcano active hydrothermal system (Aeolian Island,Italy)

High-sulfidation (HS) epithermal systems have elements in common with passively degassing volcanoes associated with high T, acid fumarole fields or acid crater lakes. They are considered to form in two stages, the first of which involves advanced argillic alteration resulting from intense, strongly acidic fluid–rock interaction. The La Fossa hydrothermal system (Vulcano Island) represents a classic example of such an active HS system and can be considered as a modern analogue of this early stage of alteration, resulting in a core of intense silicic (90–95% pure SiO₂) alteration surrounded by alunitic alteration zones.     

南黄海中部隆起中-古生代地层发育新认识——基于大陆架科学钻探CSDP-02井钻探成果

南黄海中部隆起海相地层埋藏浅,是南黄海盆地油气勘探的重点,但由于缺乏钻井资料约束,中部隆起中-古生界的地层属性一直存在争议.大陆架科学钻探CSDP-02井是南黄海中部隆起第一口钻井,也是南黄海盆地钻遇地层最深的一口全取心井.本文在分析大陆架科学钻探CSDP-02井的岩心、测井和相应多道地震资料基础上,明确了中部隆起中-古生界的地层属性：在新近系充填沉积之下,依次发育三叠系下统青龙组下段、二叠系上统大隆组、龙潭组,二叠系下统孤峰组、栖霞组,石炭系船山组、黄龙组、和州组和高骊山组,泥盆系五通群和志留系高家边组、奥陶系.结合地球物理测井曲线分析与区域地质认识,确定了地震反射界面T2、T8、T9、T10、T11的反射特征与对应的地质界面.中部隆起地层分布特征整体受南黄海构造运动的影响,早古生代地层平缓,断裂不发育,加里东运动造成志留系上统及中下泥盆统沉积缺失,石炭系-二叠系在中部隆起广泛发育,厚度大,二叠系最大沉积厚度约1900 m,中生界残留地层分布局限,主要保存下三叠系,地层厚度变化范围较大.