Origin of dolomitic rocks in the lower Permian Fengcheng formation,Junggar Basin,China: evidence from petrology and geochemistry

Mineralogy and Petrology - Although dolomitization of calcite minerals and carbonatization of volcanic rocks have been studied widely, the extensive dolomitic rocks that originated from altered...     

Bulk finite tectonic strain estimates from the deformation of neptunian dykes

Large sedimentary dykes, which penetrate down through their host sediments for several metres, are described from the Late Precambrian Dalradian sediments of Islay in the southwest Scottish Highlands. The sediments and their neptunian dykes have suffered a single penetrative deformation which produced a slaty cleavage during the evolution of the Islay nappe. Ratios of the three principal finite strains are calculated for the bulk or large-scale, homogeneous deformation of the sediments and their neptunian dykes using the method of Borradaile and Johnson (1973) and a new, more general method. Since the neptunian dykes result from the infilling of fractures in already consolidated sediments, subsequent considerable volume changes are unlikely to have occurred. Accepting constant volume post-diagenetic deformation the bulk tectonic strain is shown to have, in round figures: 70% shortening normal to slaty cleavage and extensions of 50% and 120% within the cleavage. The deformation accompanying the slaty cleavage lies within the field of true flattening.     

New age estimates and climatostratigraphic correlations for the Borrobol and Penifiler Tephras: evidence from Abernethy Forest,Scotland

The emerging tephrostratigraphy of NW Europe spanning the last termination (ca. 15–9 ka) provides the potential for synchronizing marine, ice‐core and terrestrial records, but is currently compromised by stratigraphic complications, geochemical ambiguity and imprecise age estimates for some layers. Here we present new tephrostratigraphic, radiocarbon and chironomid‐based palaeotemperature data from Abernethy Forest, Scotland, that refine the ages and stratigraphic positions of the Borrobol and Penifiler tephras. The Borrobol Tephra (14.14–13.95 cal ka BP) was deposited in a relatively warm period equated with Greenland Interstadial sub‐stage GI‐1e. The younger Penifiler Tephra (14.09–13.65 cal ka BP) is closely associated with a cold oscillation equated with GI‐1d. We also present evidence for a previously undescribed tephra layer that has a major‐element chemical signature identical to the Vedde Ash. It is associated with the warming trend at the end of the Younger Dryas, and dates between 11.79 and 11.20 cal ka BP. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Blanket mire formation at the Cross Lochs, Sutherland, northern Scotland

A brief review of the genesis of blanket peats is presented, together with detailed analyses of basal peats from northern Scotland. Particular attention is paid to local factors affecting peat growth and the problems of sampling and interpretation arising from them. Macrofossil and loss-on-ignition analyses of four peat-mineral interfaces solve many of the terminological problems of such profiles and indicate that interpretations based on field stratigraphy alone are uncertain. Pollen analyses of two profiles from contrasting microtopographic situations show well-defined vegetational change associated with early peat development. Fully organic ombrotrophic peat is present from 6805 ± 50 BP at one site, following anthropogenic burning from c . 7500 BP and partial recovery of the open birch woodland. A change from birch woodland to Calluna heath occurs at approximately the same time on a more freely drained site with much later peat development, following further burning from 4890 ± 65 BP. Anthropogenic activity is clearly associated with changes in soil and vegetation preceding peat formation, and the role of climatic factors remains equivocal.     

准噶尔盆地吉木萨尔凹陷中二叠统芦草沟组云质岩沉积环境及白云石成因探讨*

准噶尔盆地吉木萨尔凹陷中二叠统芦草沟组发育一套陆内裂谷背景下,由粉砂级-泥级陆源碎屑、凝灰碎屑、碳酸盐及热液矿物组成的湖相细粒云质岩。本研究以云质岩为研究对象,通过岩石学、矿物学及地球化学研究探讨其形成环境和白云石形成机理。云质岩岩矿特征和主、微量元素特征表明,在中二叠世为处于干旱气候的浅水咸化湖盆,区域火山活动强烈,湖盆内幔源热液活动发育。云质岩中的白云石主要呈自形-半自形的微粉晶颗粒,形成细纹层或与其他组分混合,局部可见自形-半自形的细晶白云石,微粉晶白云石为低有序度白云石(0.46),成分均匀,被纹层包绕,细晶白云石交代残留结构发育,为成岩交代的产物;两类白云石均富锶贫镁,细晶白云石较微粉晶白云石更富铁和锰。微粉晶白云石具有较低的δ¹⁸O_PDB(平均为-4.72‰),基于白云石的形成流体由湖水和幔源热液混合的假设,所计算得到的形成温度介于54.61~186.46 ℃之间;δ¹³C_PDB偏高(平均为8.79‰),推测其与芦草沟组高的有机质埋藏量及产甲烷古菌的代谢活动有关。微粉晶白云石为同生期-准同生期沉淀或交代的原白云石,其Mg²⁺来自于咸化湖水、凝灰碎屑和幔源热液,热液带来的高温和产甲烷古菌的代谢活动打破了白云石形成的动力学屏障。     

Comparison of strain and magnetic fabrics in Dalradian rocks from the southwest Highlands of Scotland

The magnetic fabrics of 235 samples from 31 localities in Argyllshire, Scotland were determined to study the development of the Caledonian tectonic fabric in the southwest Highlands of Scotland. The regional fabric indicates a strong NE-SW compressional foliation due to the primary deformational phases, which in parts has been overprinted by secondary deformations. A detailed comparison of the anisotropy data and the available strain data shows that the two fabric ellipsoids are co-axial, and that their axial mean ratios seem to be related by an empirical power relationship of the type:

$\text{Xi}\text{Xj}\text{=}\text{li}\text{lj}{}^{\mathrm{a}}$

(for i = 1,2,3; j = 1,2,3 and i ≠ j) where χ_i and χ_j are orthogonal principal axes and l_i and l_j are the corresponding orthogonal principal strain axes. The exponent a for the sites from Scotland is 0.088 ± 0.017 compared with 0.142 ± 0.001 and 0.145 ± 0.005 found in the Caledonian slates of the English Lake District and the Welsh slate belt.     

Strain analysis and strain path modelling in the Loch Tollie gneisses,Gairloch, NW Scotland

A quantitative structural analysis is presented for the Loch Tullie gneisses of the Lewisian complex outcropping at Gairloch. The gneisses and the dykes they contain are folded into a large antiformal structure known as the Tollic Antiform. Quartz aggregates in quartzo-feldspathic gneisses have been used as finite strain markers in eleven specimens across the antiform. Two models, using rotational strain (simple shear) and irrotational strain (pure shear), are used to reconstruct the strain path. Results show that only the rotational strain model satisfies the strain data and the field evidence, and indicates a steeply northeast (75°) dipping shear plane and moderately northwest (55°) plunging shear direction, with a southwest-side-down sense of shear. A strain profile is constructed for the Tollie gneisses using the model and the attitude of gneissose layering. This shows increasing shear strain to the southwest to a maximum gamma value of approximately 8. The strain profile indicates a horizontal dextral displacement of 4.7 km and a vertical displacement of 6.8 km for the Tollie gneisses. The Tollie Antiform thus lies on the northeast margin of a large-scale shear zone, the main zone of deformation of which can be traced southwestwards some 4 km. Such a shear zone presents a major tectonic boundary within the Lewisian of northwest Scotland.     

新疆准噶尔盆地吉木萨尔凹陷二叠系芦草沟组云质岩地球化学特征

研究区芦草沟组云质岩主要包含泥晶白云岩、凝灰质白云岩和白云质凝灰岩等类型,对准噶尔盆地吉木萨尔凹陷二叠系芦草沟组广泛发育的云质岩进行详细的地球化学研究,分析了芦草沟组云质岩的物质来源和沉积环境。云质岩的c（Mg）/c（Ca）比值0.03~1.44,磷含量262×10^-6~17283×10^-6,Th/U比值0.58~2.00,V/（V+Ni）比值0.60~0.89,V/Cr比值1.25~6.38,Sr/Ba比值0.55~8.25,反映了云质岩形成于生物繁盛的还原性咸水湖泊环境,Mg离子主要来源于深部岩浆热液。碳、氧同位素研究反映芦草沟组主要形成于温度较高的咸水环境中,且由早至晚芦草沟组沉积期具有温度升高而盐度降低的趋势。温度的升高引起的蒸发量增大并没有带来湖水盐度的增加,这种碳酸盐碳、氧同位素反向变化关系可能由于芦草沟组沉积后期不断有外源淡水的输入造成。     

Metadolerite age relationships in the dalradian of northwest donegal,Ireland and their orogenic significance

The structural relationships of several intrusive sheets belonging to the extensive metadolerite suite of the Appin (lower) Dalradian rocks of the Creeslough area, northwest Donegal, Ireland have been examined. It is concluded that, relative to the regional chronology of deformation of the enclosing metasediments, sheet emplacement has occurred: pre-D2; syn-D2; between D2 and D3; and syn-D3. The height of activity came in the post-D2, pre-D3 interval and coincided with the peak of regional metamorphism in the area. These relationships in Donegal are compared with those of the pretectonic basic rocks of the southwest Highlands and models are discussed.     

A test of the englacial thrusting hypothesis of ''hummocky'' moraine formation: case studies from the northwest Highlands, Scotland

The melt-out of material contained within englacial thrust planes has been proposed to result in the formation of stacked moraine sequences with characteristic proximal rectilinear slopes. This model has been applied to explain the formation of Scottish Younger Dryas ice-marginal ('hummocky') moraines on the basis of these morphological characteristics. However, no sedimentological data exist to support this proposal. This article reviews hitherto proposed models of 'hummocky' moraine formation and presents detailed geomorphological and sedimentological results from the NW Scottish Highlands with the aims of reconstructing the dynamics of Younger Dryas glaciers and of testing the applicability of the englacial thrusting model. Exposures demonstrate that moraines represent terrestrial ice-contact fans throughout, with a variety of postdepositional deformation structures being identified in most cases, indicating that glacier retreat was incremental and oscillatory; proximal rectilinear slopes are interpreted as ice-contact faces formed after ice support was withdrawn during retreat. This evidence strongly suggests a temperate glacier regime and short glacier response times similar to those in present-day SW Norway or Iceland. It contradicts the thrusting model and the proposal that Svalbard might form a suitable analogue for Younger Dryas moraines in Scotland.     

The structures of the Ardsheal Peninsula,Argyll, their age and regional significance

The lithologies and structures of the Dalradian rocks of the Ardsheal Peninsula, Argyllshire are described. The structures associated with the main synformal fold (part of the Appin Syncline) are shown to be F₁ in age. F₂ structures cross the Syncline and show progressive development towards the east. The Syncline is correlated and compared with other major F₁ folds in the region. This interpretation is contrasted with other interpretations of the Syncline as a third-phase structure which can be correlated with late-phase folds in the Dalradian.     

The Carstairs Kames (Lanarkshire,Scotland): morphology,sedimentology and formation

The Carstairs Kames have been the subject of debate for over 150 yr. A synthesis of previous work, along with new sedimentological data, is used to reappraise this classic British esker locality. Three morphological elements are recognised: (i) large, sinuous and anastomosing ridges; (ii) large, irregular, linear mounds; and (iii) small, low and irregular mounds. The main ridge system is composed of a core of boulder gravel with sand/pebble gravel above and adjacent to the core. The large, linear mounds contain a varied facies range which include: glaciolacustrine sediments (deltaic sequences, laminites and dropstones); debris flows; and glaciofluvial channel systems. All the deposits, both in the main ridges and in the adjacent linear mounds, contain syn-and post-depositional subsidence structures, including normal faults, synclinal folds and growth faults. A range of potential origins for these landforms is reviewed and it is suggested that glaciofluvial sedimentation in a supraglacial environment, controlled by a topography of ice-cored ridges, is the most appropriate depositional model. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Early phases of Caledonian deformation in the Dalradian of the Ballachulish district,Argyll

Two early phases of deformation preceded the development of the major NE-SW-trending folds, including the Appin Fold. The earliest recognized structures include small folds, lineations and inclusion trails in garnet porphyroblasts. The dominant schistosity and mineral lineation was developed during the second phase of deformation, associated with the formation of similar folds and tectonic banding, under garnet grade conditions over much of the area. The later-formed major folds are associated with low grade retrogressive metamorphism and crenulation and fracture cleavage formation. These folds are concentric folds and have associated tectonic slides producing low grade cataclastic schists. On the basis of fold style and sequence and metamorphic grade there is a great similarity between the structures in the Dalradian rocks of the Ballappel Foundation and those of the Iltay Nappe.     

Contact metamorphism of impure dolomitic limestone in the Boulder Aureole,Montana

Progressive metamorphism of impure dolomitic limestone in the 1.5 to 2.5 km wide contact aureole surrounding the northernmost portion of the boulder batholith has resulted in a consistent sequence of uniformly distributed zones of low-variance mineral parageneses separated by abrupt and distinctive isograds. In silica-undersaturated, aluminous marbles, the following mineral assemblages occur, in order of increasing grade: calcite-dolomite-calcic amphibole-chlorite, calcite-dolomite-calcic amphibole-chlorite-spinel, calcite-dolomite-calcic amphibole-chlorite-olivine-spinel, calcite-dolomite-chlorite-olivine-spinel, calcite-dolomite-olivine-spinel. The spatial distribution of parageneses and the occurrence of low-variance parageneses indicate buffering of the pore fluid composition by the local mineral assemblages. The observed sequence of mineral reactions and the spacing of isograds is in good agreement with experimental and calculated equilibria in terms of P-T-X _{CO 2}and temperatures of equilibration inferred from calcite-dolomite geothermometry, which range from 435 to 607 °C across the aureole.Microprobe analyses of coexisting minerals indicate attainment of exchange equilibrium. Calcic amphibole and chlorite coexisting with calcite and dolomite become progressively more aluminous with increasing grade; calcic amphibole changes rapidly from Al-poor tremolite to pargasite, while Al^IV in Cte increases from 2.0 to 2.3 atoms per 8 tetrahedral sites. Observed low-variance assemblages fix the activities of calcic amphibole and chlorite end-member components as a function of P and T, and hence the systematic compositional variation in these phases is not an independent variable, but is controlled by the local mineral assemblage.     

Fluid flow and Al transport during quartz-kyanite vein formation, Unst, Shetland Islands, Scotland

Quartz‐kyanite veins, adjacent alteration selvages and surrounding ‘precursor’ wall rocks in the Dalradian Saxa Vord Pelite of Unst in the Shetland Islands (Scotland) were investigated to constrain the geochemical alteration and mobility of Al associated with channelized metamorphic fluid infiltration during the Caledonian Orogeny. Thirty‐eight samples of veins, selvages and precursors were collected, examined using the petrographic microscope and electron microprobe, and geochemically analysed. With increasing grade, typical precursor mineral assemblages include, but are not limited to, chlorite+chloritoid, chlorite+chloritoid+kyanite, chlorite+chloritoid+staurolite and garnet+staurolite+kyanite+chloritoid. These assemblages coexist with quartz, white mica (muscovite, paragonite, margarite), and Fe‐Ti oxides. The mineral assemblage of the selvages does not change noticeably with metamorphic grade, and consists of chloritoid, kyanite, chlorite, quartz, white mica and Fe‐Ti oxides. Pseudosections for selvage and precursor bulk compositions indicate that the observed mineral assemblages were stable at regional metamorphic conditions of 550–600 °C and 0.8–1.1 GPa. A mass balance analysis was performed to assess the nature and magnitude of geochemical alteration that produced the selvages adjacent to the veins. On average, selvages lost about −26% mass relative to precursors. Mass losses of Na, K, Ca, Rb, Sr, Cs, Ba and volatiles were −30 to −60% and resulted from the destruction of white mica. Si was depleted from most selvages and transported locally to adjacent veins; average selvage Si losses were about −50%. Y and rare earth elements were added due to the growth of monazite in cracks cutting apatite. The mass balance analysis also suggests some addition of Ti occurred, consistent with the presence of rutile and hematite‐ilmenite solid solutions in veins. No major losses of Al from selvages were observed, but Al was added in some cases. Consequently, the Al needed to precipitate vein kyanite was not derived locally from the selvages. Veins more than an order of magnitude thicker than those typically observed in the field would be necessary to accommodate the Na and K lost from the selvages during alteration. Therefore, regional transport of Na and K out of the local rock system is inferred. In addition, to account for the observed abundances of kyanite in the veins, large fluid‐rock ratios (10²–10³ m³_fluid m⁻³_rock) and time‐integrated fluid fluxes in excess of ∼10⁴ m³_fluid m⁻²_rock are required owing to the small concentrations of Al in aqueous fluids. It is concluded that the quartz‐kyanite veins and their selvages were produced by regional‐scale advective mass transfer by means of focused fluid flow along a thrust fault zone. The results of this study provide field evidence for considerable Al mass transport at greenschist to amphibolite facies metamorphic conditions, possibly as a result of elevated concentrations of Al in metamorphic fluids due to alkali‐Al silicate complexing at high pressures.     

Turbid alkali feldspars from the Isle of Skye,northwest Scotland

Partially turbid alkali feldspars from hydrothermally altered Tertiary granites on the Isle of Skye (the Red Hills granites) were studied using light microscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopies, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Limpid cores and turbid rims of individual crystals were compared to determine the causes of the turbidity. The limpid cores were cryptoperthitic, with lamellar widths of 0.1–0.3 μm. In contrast, the turbid rims contained K-rich and Narich areas coarsened to >0.5 μm. Turbid regions contained abundant inclusions, whereas limpid regions did not. Two generations of turbidity were recognized. Feldspars from the Beinn an Dubhaich granite, a granite with near-normal values for ¹⁸O/¹⁶O possessed limpid cores surrounded by turbid rims that cast a reddish-brown hue in transmitted light. When viewed in darkfield light microscopy, the regions with the reddish-brown turbidity were blue. This is consistent with the hypothesis that the cloudy appearance of these turbid regions arises from the scattering of light by micrometerto submicrometer-sized inhomogeneities in refractive index caused by fluid-filled cavities. Feldspars from the Loch Ainort granite, a granite with low values for ¹⁸O/¹⁶O possessed limpid and reddish-brown-turbid cores surrounded by turbid rims that cast a blackish hue in transmitted light. Ion thinning of the turbid areas produced an abundance of small holes (≤1–2 μm) apparently the remains of fluid inclusions. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that some holes from regions of reddish-brown turbidity contained non-feldspar material, including halite and metal-rich phases of various compositions. In contrast, blackish turbid regions contained cavities filled with alteration products, such as kaolinite. Hence, the feldspars from granites on the Isle of Skye apparently record interactions with at least two fluids: a saline fluid (possibly a late-stage magmatic fluid) and a meteoric fluid.     

Metamorphic reactions in the biotite zone, eastern Scotland: high thermal gradients, metasomatism and cleavage formation

Prograde metamorphic reactions involving the growth of phyllosilicates and accompanying cleavage development have been investigated in Dalradian metasediments from the biotite zone of eastern Scotland. Crystallization of muscovite within the psammites of the Southern Highland Group is linked to the replacement of plagioclase porphyroclasts. This reaction is triggered by significant alkali metasomatism during active deformation and plays an important role in the formation of a prominent spaced cleavage within the psammites. The Si content of most of these early-formed muscovites is partially buffered by the quartz content of the rock, although close to the Highland Boundary Fault, evidence of greater influence from externally derived fluids on muscovite compositions is preserved. Locally higher fluid fluxes adjacent to the fault are also indicated by a relatively high δ ¹⁸O_(SMOW) signature in the rocks. The biotite-producing reaction in these greenschist-facies rocks is linked to the later production of a celadonite-poor muscovite which formed as overgrowths around pre-existing white micas. This reaction is sensitive to the initial composition of muscovite and preferentially occurs in quartz-rich metasediments containing a celadonite-rich muscovite. A systematic increase in the progress of the biotite-producing reaction northwards across the biotite zone confirms the presence of high geothermal gradients along the southern margin of the Dalradian block, adjacent to the Highland Boundary Fault. Received: 26 February 1999 / Accepted: 8 November 1999