Recent Results from Studies of Electric Discharges in the Mesosphere

The paper reviews recent advances in studies of electric discharges in the stratosphere and mesosphere above thunderstorms, and their effects on the atmosphere. The primary focus is on the sprite discharge occurring in the mesosphere, which is the most commonly observed high altitude discharge by imaging cameras from the ground, but effects on the upper atmosphere by electromagnetic radiation from lightning are also considered. During the past few years, co-ordinated observations over Southern Europe have been made of a wide range of parameters related to sprites and their causative thunderstorms. Observations have been complemented by the modelling of processes ranging from the electric discharge to perturbations of trace gas concentrations in the upper atmosphere. Observations point to significant energy deposition by sprites in the neutral atmosphere as observed by infrasound waves detected at up to 1000 km distance, whereas elves and lightning have been shown significantly to affect ionization and heating of the lower ionosphere/mesosphere. Studies of the thunderstorm systems powering high altitude discharges show the important role of intracloud (IC) lightning in sprite generation as seen by the first simultaneous observations of IC activity, sprite activity and broadband, electromagnetic radiation in the VLF range. Simulations of sprite ignition suggest that, under certain conditions, energetic electrons in the runaway regime are generated in streamer discharges. Such electrons may be the source of X- and Gamma-rays observed in lightning, thunderstorms and the so-called Terrestrial Gamma-ray Flashes (TGFs) observed from space over thunderstorm regions. Model estimates of sprite perturbations to the global atmospheric electric circuit, trace gas concentrations and atmospheric dynamics suggest significant local perturbations, and possibly significant meso-scale effects, but negligible global effects.     

Numerical simulation of a conducting channel initiated by an extensive air shower in a thunderstorm electric field

The mechanism by which lightning is initiated by preliminary ionization of the atmosphere by extensive atmospheric showers (EASs) of cosmic particles with the following development of relativistic run-away electron avalanches (RREAs) is analyzed. The two-dimensional numerical model of conducting channel evolution in a thunderstorm electric field has been constructed. The calculations, performed for different field strength values, energy initiating cosmic particle EASs, and dimensions of the region occupied by the field indicate, indicate that lightning discharges cannot be initiated by a joint action of EASs and RREAs.     

Thunderstorms,Lightning, Sprites and Magnetospheric Whistler-Mode Radio Waves

Thunderstorms and the lightning that they produce are inherently interesting phenomena that have intrigued scientists and mankind in general for many years. The study of thunderstorms has rapidly advanced during the past century and many efforts have been made towards understanding lightning, thunderstorms and their consequences. Recent observations of optical phenomena above an active lightning discharge along with the availability of modern technology both for data collection and data analysis have renewed interest in the field of thunderstorms and their consequences in the biosphere. In this paper, we review the electrification processes of a thunderstorm, lightning processes and their association with global electric circuit and climate. The upward lightning discharge can cause sprites, elves, jets, etc. which are together called transient luminous events. Their morphological features and effects in the mesosphere are reviewed. The wide spectrum of electromagnetic waves generated during lightning discharges couple the lower atmosphere with the ionosphere/magnetosphere. Hence various features of these waves from ULF to VHF are reviewed with reference to recent results and their consequences are also briefly discussed.     

Study of charge structure and radiation characteristic of intracloud discharge in thunderstorms of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The comprehensive observations on lightning discharges were conducted in Naqu area of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in summer of 2002. The electric structures of thunderstorms and the characteristics of lightning discharges at initial stage were analyzed by using the observation data. The results show that most of intracloud (IC) lightning flashes were polarities inverted in thunderstorms with tripole electric charge structure and occurred between negative charge region located in the middle of the thunderstorm and positive charge region located at the bottom of the thunderstorm. The radiation characteristics of discharge processes in cloud with longer lasting time involved in Cloud-to-Ground (CG) lightning flashes were similar to that of IC discharges.A lot of radiation pulses were produced in these discharge processes. Because the IC discharges took place at the bottom of thundercloud and were near the ground, they may produce more serious damage to equipment on the ground therefore should not be neglected in lightning protection.     

Study of charge structure and radiation characteristic of intracloud discharge in thunderstorms of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The comprehensive observations on lightning discharges were conducted in Naqu area of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in summer of 2002. The electric structures of thunderstorms and the characteristics of lightning discharges at initial stage were analyzed by using the observation data. The results show that most of intracloud (IC) lightning flashes were polarities inverted in thunderstorms with tripole electric charge structure and occurred between negative charge region located in the middle of the thunderstorm and positive charge region located at the bottom of the thunderstorm. The radiation characteristics of discharge processes in cloud with longer lasting time involved in Cloud-to-Ground (CG) lightning flashes were similar to that of IC discharges. A lot of radiation pulses were produced in these discharge processes. Because the IC discharges took place at the bottom of thundercloud and were near the ground, they may produce more serious damage to equipment on the ground therefore should not be neglected in lightning protection.     

Source of runaway electrons in a thundercloud field caused by cosmic radiation

The volumetric generation rate of secondary electrons, produced by cosmic radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere and able to accelerate in a thundercloud electric field, has been calculated as a function of height above sea level. It is recommended to use the obtained function as a source when modeling atmospheric breakdown in thunderstorm fields with the participation of relativistic runaway electron avalanches. It has been indicated that ionization of the atmosphere by a cosmic particle with an energy of 10¹⁶ eV cannot initiate lightning.     

Measurements of Atmospheric Electricity Aloft

Measurements of the electrical characteristics of the atmosphere above the surface have been made for over 200?years, from a variety of different platforms, including kites, balloons, rockets and aircraft. From these measurements, a great deal of information about the electrical characteristics of the atmosphere has been gained, assisting our understanding of the global atmospheric electric circuit, thunderstorm electrification and lightning generation mechanisms, discovery of transient luminous events above thunderstorms and many other electrical phenomena. This paper surveys the history of atmospheric electrical measurements aloft, from the earliest manned balloon ascents to current day observations with free balloons and aircraft. Measurements of atmospheric electrical parameters in a range of meteorological conditions are described, including clear air conditions, polluted conditions, non-thunderstorm clouds, and thunderstorm clouds, spanning a range of atmospheric conditions, from fair weather to the most electrically active.     

ELF transients associated with sprites and elves in eastern Mediterranean winter thunderstorms

During the northern hemisphere winter of 2005–2006, transient luminous events (TLEs) known as ‘sprites’ and ‘elves’ were imaged over thunderstorm cells in the eastern Mediterranean. Simultaneously, extremely low frequency (ELF) data (ELF: 3–3000 Hz) were recorded at two observation stations in Israel and Hungary in order to qualify and quantify parameters of the parent lightning discharge associated with the transient optical emissions in the upper atmosphere. In this study, we found that for 87% (Israel) and 77% (Hungary) of optically observed TLEs an intense ELF transient event was recorded. These stations are located some 500 and 2100 km, respectively, from the region of the TLEs. All ELF transients that were associated with TLEs were caused by lightning discharges with positive polarity. Calculation of the charge moment change showed values between 600 and 2800 C km with a peak around 1000 C km. Additionally, the time delay between the +CG and ensuing sprite was 76±34 ms and it was displaced up to 50 km from its parent CG.One of our objectives in the present study was to characterize, based on the ELF radiation from lightning, the electromagnetic (EM) waveforms of the lightning discharges which generate TLEs in the time and frequency domains, and to compare them with other lightning discharges occurring in the same thunderstorm cell at approximately the same time, but which did not produce TLEs. The survey for a typical EM waveform showed no unique ELF signature for lightning discharges associated with either sprites or elves.     

青藏高原那曲地区雷电特征初步分析

通过对2002年夏季青藏高原那曲地区雷暴过程及闪电观测资料的初步分析,发现该地区雷暴电荷结构具有多样性和复杂性,地闪明显偏少. 对高原地闪的一些基本特征参量的统计分析表明,无论正地闪还是负地闪梯级先导前都具有持续时间较长的云内放电过程,地闪以单次回击为主. 与中低纬度地区相比,高原地闪中正地闪比例明显要高,为33髎;负地闪为67髎;正、负地闪回击后常常伴随短时间的连续电流.     

沿海地区一次多单体雷暴电荷结构时空演变

利用闪电放电辐射源三维时空分布测量,分析了山东低海拔地区一次多单体雷暴过程的电荷结构演变以及与回波强度的关系.结果表明对流云区电荷结构是典型的上正下负电偶极结构,且随着雷暴发展正负电荷层强度增大,高度抬升.负电荷区处在40 dBz以上的强回波区域中,正电荷层处在约40 dBz区域中.层状云区也有类似结构,只是强度弱,高度低.观测到的四层电荷结构是出现在对流区消散阶段,此时,由于云体不同部位的不同消散程度,电荷结构发生断裂,云体前部正负电荷区下沉,云体中部正负电荷区高度变化不大,但负电荷区域变薄,呈现出四层电荷结构.从本例结果说明,雷暴优势起电机制通常能形成电偶极或三极性结构,多极结构可能不是起电形成.本文还分析了一次负地闪传输过程,和宏观电荷结构很好吻合,说明利用三维定位系统观测,可以较好地描述雷暴宏观电荷结构.     

Atmosphere–ionosphere vertical electric coupling above thunderstorms of different intensity

The most important features of the quasi-electrostatic fields (QSFs) and currents, generated in the region between a thunderstorm (TS) and the ionosphere between lightning discharges, are theoretically investigated. They depend on different factors having large variability, related to the TS and to the atmospheric conductivity. These features are studied in order to understand better the conditions when QSFs cause modifications of the parameters and chemical balance in the lower ionosphere over TSs due to electron heating, as well as the generation of red sprites. For this purpose, an analytical model based on Maxwell's equations under conditions of curl-free electric fields is presented. The temporal and spatial behaviour of the QSFs is studied as a function of the parameters of lightning discharges and of atmospheric conductivity. The dependence of the QSF, mainly its peak values, on the charge moment change, the discharge time, and the horizontal extent of the discharged region, on the one hand, and of the conductivity profile, on the other, is studied. It is shown that the profile of the QSF time peak changes its scale height at the altitudes where the relaxation time becomes equal to the discharge time, and where the conductivity scale height is diminished; below these altitudes the peak QSFs decrease with time much slower than above them. Also, the QSF peak increases almost linearly with the charge height and depends little on the size of the discharged region. The total Maxwell and conduction currents, which flow from the TS to the ionosphere, are also studied. The peak current is proportional to the charge moment change, and actually does not depend on the frequency of lightning discharges.     

Some observations of bipolar flashes during summer thunderstorms near Warsaw

Lightning discharges monitored by the SAFIR network system in Poland have been additionally identified over the 100×100 km area near Warsaw by single-point independent recordings of electric field and Maxwell current rapid changes. The data collected in summer thunderstorm days of 2002 showed some untypical properties of the lightning discharges which are rarely observed. Especially remarkable was a number of ground multi-stroke flashes with the return strokes (RS) which transported to the earth charges of opposite signs. Bipolar flashes (BF) of this kind were mostly involved in the events in which the nearby intracloud (ic) and cloud-to-ground (c-g) discharges were very closely associated in time. Events of such a close collocation of two different types of lightning discharges, previously called the complex lightning discharge events (CLDE), were quite often observed during summer thunderstorms in Poland. The events of this kind, i.e. 8 flashes, identified by the SAFIR detection system as BF’s present the multiple stroke flashes of the mean horizontal separation distance between striking points of particular RS equal to (2.8 ± 2.1) km and of the mean time interval between strokes of (46.8 ± 74.4) ms. The time separation between the observed BF and the adjacent ic flashes was from 0.1 to 335 ms, and horizontal separation distance between them ranged from 1.8 to 14.5 km. The multiplicity of the recorded BF’s ranged from 2 to 4 strokes. Four of these BF’s followed the ic discharge, but the other three preceded the ic and one was alone with no close ic.     

Narrow positive bipolar radiation from lightning observed in Sri Lanka

Narrow positive bipolar pulses (NPBPs), whose origin largely remains unknown as yet, have occasionally been noticed in Sri Lanka. These discharges are found to be opposite in polarity to that of negative return strokes, and are found to occur at the beginning and active stage of thunderstorm activities in Sri Lanka. They are emitted from the thunderstorms that produce other activities also and are relatively narrower, bipolar and isolated in nature. They are neither preceded by leader-type pulses nor succeeded by the subsequent activities and hence, could not be associated with any other known activity. Similar radiations have previously been identified and termed as NPBPs. Their features are indeed unique and different from the other known thunderstorm electrical processes. These events have been found to be accompanied by the HF radiations at 5 and 10 MHz, at the trailing part of the pulse. However, such narrow, bipolar and isolated events have not been observed in Sweden, during a lightning measurement campaign at Uppsala, in 2006. So, it is speculated that the meteorological conditions to be responsible for the thunderstorm activity to produce such pulses. Features of such pulses recorded on different thunderstorm days in 2005 and 2006 have been analyzed and presented in this study.The average rise time (10–90%) (Tr), of the pulses was found to be 2.6 μs, the average zero crossing time (Tz) was found to be 5.85 μs, the average duration of slow front (Ts) was found to be 1.86 μs, and the average ratio of amplitude of overshoot to the corresponding peak amplitude (Os/Pa) of these pulses was found to be 0.39.     

Lightning Applications in Weather and Climate Research

Thunderstorms, and lightning in particular, are a major natural hazard to the public, aviation, power companies, and wildfire managers. Lightning causes great damage and death every year but also tells us about the inner working of storms. Since lightning can be monitored from great distances from the storms themselves, lightning may allow us to provide early warnings for severe weather phenomena such as hail storms, flash floods, tornadoes, and even hurricanes. Lightning itself may impact the climate of the Earth by producing nitrogen oxides (NOx), a precursor of tropospheric ozone, which is a powerful greenhouse gas. Thunderstorms themselves influence the climate system by the redistribution of heat, moisture, and momentum in the atmosphere. What about future changes in lightning and thunderstorm activity? Many studies show that higher surface temperatures produce more lightning, but future changes will depend on what happens to the vertical temperature profile in the troposphere, as well as changes in water balance, and even aerosol loading of the atmosphere. Finally, lightning itself may provide a useful tool for tracking climate change in the future, due to the nonlinear link between lightning, temperature, upper tropospheric water vapor, and cloud cover.     

Thunderstorm activity dynamics during hurricanes

Results of studying the thunderstorm activity dynamics during the Pacific hurricanes in August and October 2001, using broadband recording of the time forms of atmospherics on Kamchatka, have been presented. The number of atmospherics per minute at simultaneously determined azimuths of their sources has been used as an example of thunderstorm activity. An analysis of data processing results has indicated (a) in the absence of hurricanes, the maximal atmospheric flux level (10 ± 4 pulse/min) was observed at night, and the daylight level was 3 ± 1 pulse/min; (b) thunderstorm activity increases at the stage of tropical depression regardless of depression development into hurricane; in this case the flux of atmospherics can increase to 250 pulse/min at night and can be widely variable (5–100 pulse/min) in daytime; (c) in the sate of hurricane maturity, the thunderstorm activity level is not higher than the background level. It has been indicated that IGWs in the Earth’s atmosphere and the lower ionosphere are caused by lightning strokes accompanied by shock waves during expansion of the lighning channel. The results obtained are of interest in studying anomalous effects in the natural electromagnetic field in the VLF band during increased seismic activity on Kamchatka.     

Long-Term Power Transmission Failures in Southeastern Brazil and the Geophysical Environment

High-voltage transmission networks represent a large electrical circuit just above the ground subjected to a number of transient overcharges of various kinds, some of which may lead to failures. Some failures might be related to anomalies of the geophysical environment. We have analyzed one unprecedented long series of transmission grid failures (9?years) on high-voltage networks located in S?o Paulo state, southeastern Brazil, from 1998 to 2006, which includes an important fraction of the past solar activity cycle 23. Ninety-five distinct failure causes were given by the power line operator to explain the transmission grid shut downs. Most failures were attributed to atmospheric discharges, corresponding to 1,957 failures out of a total of 4,572 for the whole period at 138?kV, and 170 out of 763 at 440?kV, respectively. They correspond to less than one ten thousandth of the actual number of atmospheric discharges recorded in the same area, demonstrating the grid’s high resilience to breakdowns due to lightning. A clear concentration of failures in the region’s thunderstorm season has been found. A significant 67 and 77?% reduction in the number of failure rates per year has been found for the 138 and 440?kV grids, respectively, for the period studied, in good correspondence with the decay in the sunspot numbers. No obvious correlation was found between power failures and the planetary index of geomagnetic activity or major geomagnetic storms in the period, either on short or on long time scales. Assuming that the dependence of the electrosphere/ionosphere-ground coupling on the external geophysical environment plays a major role in explaining the reduction in power failures as the solar cycle wanes, it is suggested that the increase in atmosphere conductivity caused by the larger cosmic ray flux then reduces the threshold voltage required to produce lightning strokes, so reducing their effectiveness in disrupting high-voltage power lines.     

雷云荷电模型量子反演

雷电物理学的发展和雷电防护新理论与新技术的研究需要对雷云荷电结构进行深入探索.利用地面电场观测数据对雷云荷电模型进行地球物理学反演是一个可行的研究途径.实际雷云荷电结构复杂多变,反演目标函数高度非线性,传统的反演方法往往显得无能为力,利用量子反演方法可尝试解决此问题.在总结分析近年发展比较成熟的量子遗传算法(QGA)、量子退火算法(QA)和量子粒子群算法(QPSO)的基础上,针对Amoruso和Lattarulo提出的带电圆盘雷云荷电模型建立反演模型,分别用三种改进的量子反演算法对理论模型计算结果进行了反演实验,发现QA对此模型的反演准确度最高,而QGA的全局收敛速度最快.通过用QGA对一组实际观测数据分别进行的三层、四层、五层带电圆盘模型的反演,对比分析了不同模型结构对实际反演结果的影响.     

Thunderstorm activity according to VLF observations at Kamchatka

The azimuthal distribution of lightning discharges and cyclone epicenters at a distance of up to 4000 km from the observation point at Kamchatka is given. The azimuths of lightning discharges were determined using an ELF finder, and the cyclone epicenters were determined from meteorological maps. Time dependences of the distribution of received radiations from lightning discharges have been obtained.     

云闪放电对云内电荷和电位分布影响的数值模拟

我们应用改进的随机闪电参数化方案,对两次雷暴的起、放电过程进行了二维125 m和250 m分辨率云闪模拟试验,分析表明高分辨率模拟的云闪通道几何结构、延伸范围和最大垂直电场变化等特征与观测结果更为一致,并且揭示了云闪放电重新配置云内电荷分布和空间电荷中和过程的一种新的物理图像：(1) 云闪的直接物理效应是在已有的空间电荷区内沿着放电通道沉积异极性电荷、形成复杂的空间电荷分布,有效地导致云中电位和场强绝对值及静电场能量剧烈下降,使放电终止.其中：放电后在闪电通道经过主要区域,电位降到±30 MV之间,垂直电场强度也降到±20 kV·m-1之间,一次正或负云闪估计消耗掉107～1010 J静电能;(2) 云中电荷中和不是正、负空间电荷简单地直接相互抵消的瞬态过程,而是广泛分布的云中空间电荷与通道沉积的异极性电荷通过湍流交换、平流输送、重力沉降以及起电等多种因素逐渐混合并部分被中和的一个后续慢过程,其弛豫时间典型值在14～44 s之间,在此期间通道感应电荷总量下降到50%以下.并残余部分电荷参与后续放电前高空间电荷密度和强电场的重建过程.     

On the NOx production by laboratory electrical discharges and lightning

Different approaches are used in estimating the global production of NO_x by lightning flashes, including field measurements carried out during thunderstorm conditions, theoretical studies combining the physics and chemistry of the electrical discharges, and measurements of NO_x yield in laboratory sparks with subsequent extrapolation to lightning. In the latter procedure, laboratory data are extrapolated to lightning using the energy as the scaling quantity. Further, in these studies only the return strokes are considered assuming that contributions from other processes such as leaders, continuing currents, M components, and K processes are negligible. In this paper, we argue that the use of energy as the scaling quantity and omission of all lightning processes other than return strokes are not justified. First, a theory which can be used to evaluate the NO_x production by electrical discharges, if the current flowing in the discharge is known, is presented. The results obtained from theory are compared with the available experimental data and a reasonable agreement is found. Numerical experiments suggest that the NO_x production efficiency of electrical discharges depends not only on the energy dissipated in the discharge, but also on the shape of current waveform. Thus, the current signature, can influence extrapolation of laboratory data to lightning flashes. Second, an estimation of the NO_x yield per lightning flash is made by treating the lightning flash as a composite event consisting of several discharge processes. We show that the NO_x production takes place mainly in slow discharge processes such as leaders, M components, and continuing currents, with return strokes contributing only a small fraction of the total NO_x. The results also show that cloud flashes are as efficient as ground flashes in NO_x generation. In estimating the global NO_x production by lightning flashes the most influencing parameter is the length of the lightning discharge channel inside the cloud. For the total length of channels inside the cloud of a typical ground flash of about 45 km, we estimate that the global annual production of NO_x is about 4 Tg(N).