Grout injection into bed separation to control surface subsidence during longwall mining under villages: case study of Liudian coal mine,China

Surface subsidence can cause many environmental problems and hazards (including loss of land area and damage to buildings), and such hazards are particularly serious in coal mining districts. Injecting grout into the bed separation in the overburden has been proposed as an effective control measure against surface subsidence during longwall mining. However, no field trials of this technique have been implemented in mines under villages in China, and thus, its ability to control subsidence in such areas has yet to be demonstrated. In this study, field trials using this technique were carried out during longwall mining under villages in the Liudian coal mine, China. The maximum surface subsidence observed after the extraction was only 0.298 m, which accounts for 10 % of the mining height and is 79 % less than the predicted subsidence. Moreover, no damage occurred to the village buildings either during or after extraction and these buildings remain stable. Thus, this study represents the first successful attempt to control surface subsidence under villages in China using grout injection during longwall mining.     

Basement tectonics and flexural subsidence along western continental margin of India

The Paleocene-recent post-rift subsidence history recorded in the Mumbai Offshore Basin off western continental margin of India is examined. Results obtained through 2-D flexural backstripping modelling of new seismic data reveal considerable thermo-tectonic subsidence over last ca. 56 Myr. Reverse postrift subsidence modelling with variable β stretching factor predicts residual topography of ca. 2000 m to the west of Shelf Margin Basin and fails to restore late Paleocene horizon and the underlying igneous basement to the sea level. This potentially implies that:(1) either the igneous basement formed during the late Cretaceous was emplaced under open marine environs; or(2) a laterally varying cumulative subsidence occurred within Mumbai Offshore Basin(MOB) during ca. 68 to ca. 56 Ma. Pre-depositional topographic variations at ca. 56 Ma across the basin could be attributed to the extensional processes such as varied lower crustal underplating along Western Continental Margin of India(WCMI). Investigations about basement tectonics after unroofing of sediments since late Paleocene from this region support a transitional and heavily stretched nature of crust with high to very high β factors. Computations of past sediment accumulation rates show that the basin sedimentation peaked during late Miocene concurrently with uplift of Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau and intensification of Indian monsoon system. Results from basin subsidence modelling presented here may have significant implications for further studies attempting to explore tectono-climatic interactions in Asia.     

厚覆盖层矿山地下开采地表塌陷机制分析

随着矿山开采深度的不断增加,厚覆盖层成为部分深部地下矿山的主要特点。以物探调查、变形监测以及理论分析为手段,对某典型厚覆盖层金属矿山地下开采初期地表塌陷的成因与机制进行了分析。结果表明,厚覆盖层中存在的大面积采空区为地表塌陷变形提供了空间,采空区顶板厚度较小为地面塌陷的发展提供了条件,采空区的存在是地表塌陷的主要原因。地表出现塌陷以后,塌陷范围以塌坑为中心继续向外扩展,受覆盖层内采空区走向,断层和岩层分界面等地质缺陷影响,塌坑向西、向南与向北三个方向上的扩展较向东快得多。降雨会增大塌坑向外扩展的速度,因为地表水的下渗加快了塌坑周围岩土体向塌坑方向的移动和下沉。     

Geology and mining practice in relation to shallow subsidence in the Northern Coalfield,New South Wales

The former Northern Coalfield, comprising much of the Newcastle‐Maitland‐Cessnock‐Lake Macquarie region, has now been mined for two hundred years. Most of the twenty‐odd seams in the Newcastle, Tomago and Greta Coal Measures have been worked, but the bulk of production has been drawn from just four coalbeds: the Borehole, Greta, Homeville and Great Northern Seams. Literally hundreds of mine names are on record for the coalfield, the great majority working these seams at depths of less than 30 m. This paper reviews regional subsidence problems in the context of mining history, past mining practices and coal measures geology. Subsidence over shallow bord‐and‐pillar workings may result in highly disturbed ground, open fissures, cratering, seam fires and ‘creeps’ (slow surface movements caused by gradual closure of mine cavities). This form of subsidence differs from that over modern longwall mines in being less predictable, affecting much smaller areas, and occurring sometimes decades after mine abandonment. The geological factors contributing to this subsidence hazard include the multiplicity of seams, the strong roof sandstones, stiff coal and relatively soft floors, and the presence of faults and dykes. The working of thick seams like the Borehole Coal in up to three phases, leaving high, slender pillars, also contributed to later ground instability. Contrary to expectation, the main problem areas are not over haphazardly laid‐out convict‐era pits, but rather above small hand‐worked scavenger mines (‘ratholes’) which operated as late as the 1950s. Many of these short‐lived collieries still contain large voids at shallow depth, sometimes only a few metres, which must eventually collapse or be backfilled.     

断裂活动影响矿区的采煤沉陷灾害问题

文章结合抚顺矿区实际,分析论述了断裂活动影响矿区的地应力环境特征。阐述了在断裂活动影响矿区,岩体长期大规模开挖造成局部区域构造应力卸载,岩体弹性变形能恢复发生水平变形,导致地表产生附加水平移动与变形。通常的沉陷区边缘区域,地表移动变形值不大,采动损害也相对较轻。但断裂活动影响矿区,沉陷区边缘区常存在着明显的水平移动与变形,并造成相应损害。尤其是在矿震等岩体地质动力现象显现影响下,地表沉陷灾害更为严重。     

Domestic water supply impacts by underground coal mining in Virginia, USA

 Underground coal mining can affect wells and springs used as water supplies. In Virginia, concerns over such impacts are felt by both surface owners and coal-mining firms. Virginia's geologic history has caused faults and fractures to be common in its coalfield region, relative to other Appalachian coal-mining areas. The results of 73 investigations of alleged domestic water supply impacts by underground mining were analyzed; the investigations were conducted by the Virginia Division of Mined Land Reclamation (VDMLR). This analysis was conducted with reference to guidelines that define a primary zone of underground mining influence where dewatering of aquifers is to be expected. The VDMLR data set included 27 investigations of alleged water supply impacts by partial-extraction room-and-pillar mines, 41 investigations of high-extraction room-and-pillar mines, and 4 investigations of longwall mines. VDMLR investigators found that 14 of 16 water supplies within the primary zone of influence were likely to have been affected by pillar-retreat mining, but no water supplies within the primary zone of influence for longwall and room-and-pillar mines were represented in the data base. VDMLR investigators found 42 of 56 water supplies outside of the primary zones were likely to have been affected by mining; these cases represented room-and-pillar, pillar-retreat, and longwall mining. Geologic circumstances not directly related to subsidence were found to be responsible for 31 of these 42 impacts. These geologic circumstances included subsurface fractures and other geologic features acting as aquifers that were drained by underground mining operations. VDMLR investigators also found some of the investigated water losses to have been caused by factors other than mining. These results demonstrate the inherent difficulties of any attempt to rigidly define a "zone of underground mining impact" based solely on mine subsidence effects, especially in regions where geologic faults and fractures are common such as the southwest Virginia coalfield. Received: 4 August 1995 · Accepted: 23 October 1995     

Mining subsidence and its effect on the environment: some differing examples

 The impact of mining subsidence on the environment can occasionally be very catastrophic, destroying property and even leading to the loss of life. Usually, however, such subsidence gives rise to varying degrees of structural damage that can range from slight to very severe. Different types of mineral deposits have been mined in different ways and this determines the nature of the associated subsidence. Some mining methods result in contemporaneous subsidence whereas, with others, subsidence may occur long after the mine workings have been abandoned. In the latter instance, it is more or less impossible to predict the effects or timing of subsidence. A number of different mineral deposits have been chosen to illustrate the different types of associated subsidence that result and the problems that arise. The examples provided are gold mining in the Johannesburg area; bord and pillar mining of coal in the Witbank Coalfield, South Africa; longwall mining of coal in the Ruhr district; mining of chalk and limestone in Suffolk and the West Midlands, respectively; and solution mining of salt in Cheshire. These mineral deposits have often been worked for more than 100 years and, therefore, a major problem results from abandoned mines, especially those at shallow depth, the presence of which is unrecorded. Abandoned mines at shallow depth can represent a serious problem in areas that are being developed or redeveloped. Abstraction of natural brine has given rise to subsidence with its own particular problems and cannot be predicted. Although such abstraction is now inconsequential in Cheshire, dereliction associated with past subsidence still remains. Received: 21 October 1999 · Accepted: 14 February 2000     

Dynamic Subsidence Characteristics in Jharia Coalfield,India

Surface ground movements are usually described by a number of characteristic indices such as vertical displacement, horizontal strain and slope, which are an inevitable consequence of underground mining. Every point at the surface over a panel is subjected to strain and slope during mining and its investigation is essential to assess the safety of surface structures. Therefore, the behaviour of dynamic active and residual subsidence was studied for a few panels of Jharia coalfield. The subsidence and slope were linearly related to time. Compressive and tensile strains showed typical fluctuating characteristic behaviour. The rate of mining being a key and controlling parameter for rate of subsidence their inter-relationship was developed, which showed a rational trend. Compressive and tensile strains and slope showed poor correlation with rate of face advance.     

城市连拱隧道施工地表沉降分析及预测研究

地表沉降的研究工作大都集中在地铁隧道盾构法施工的情况,而对于矿山法城市双连拱隧道施工引起地表沉降的研究几乎没有。本文以重庆彭家花园双连拱隧道为工程背景,就矿山法双连拱隧道施工引起的地表变形进行研究。在不同施工方法条件下,针对不同埋深、断面大小进行回归分析,从理论上弄清地表沉降的规律,根据实测资料,提出矿山法施工条件下地表沉降的预测公式。并结合三维数值模拟验证了回归效果     

地下水位下降对采矿覆岩下沉影响探析

地下采煤会导致地表下沉盆地的形成。然而地下水尤其是承压水的流失即水位降低对地表下沉盆地的形成存在不可忽视的影响，而对两者之间的关系及其过程的力学机理是岩移领域亟待研究的课题之一。矿区地下水位降低的主要原因为承压水通过采动裂隙向下渗流、煤层开采前顶板岩溶含水岩层的疏干以及地面人为钻井取水。根据对一具体矿区地下水位下降对地表沉陷影响实测数据的分析得出，在以采煤为主导条件导致地表下沉的过程中，几乎全部的开采沉陷量中均包含有由于含水层释水而造成的沉陷量。通过对上覆岩层力学机理分析，指出水位降低对覆岩移动、地表下沉的影响是由于一定地质条件下可渗水性岩石的物理力学特性、渗水对其它岩石的软化、释水后原冲积层的压密固结以及水渗透过程中的水岩耦合作用等因素综合作用所致。同时，在以上理论的基础上还探讨性地建立了地下水位下降对地表下沉贡献模型，在此模型基础上可以建立2个或2个以上影响因素对地表下沉的贡献模型。最后以框图形式概括了地下水位下降及其对地表下沉影响的综合过程。     

The Benagerie Shear Zone: 1100 Myr of reactivation history and control over continental lithospheric deformation

A newly identified northwest–southeast oriented, deeply-rooted, steep to vertical, large-scale structural system within the Proterozoic Curnamona Province, Australia, which we term the “Benagerie Shear Zone”, is imaged in regional magnetic and gravity datasets. In this study, we use a combination of field analysis and quantitative geophysical methods, to establish a 1100 Myr history of activity along the Benagerie Shear Zone during which the location of younger geological structures are influenced by the pre-existing shear zone. This deformational system is interpreted to have 1) aided ascent and emplacement of the ca. 1600 Ma Ninnerie (magmatic) Supersuite; 2) controlled the loci of nucleation of normal faults during rifting and continental breakup at ca. 800 Ma; and 3) influenced the development of fold structures as well as acting as a plane co-linear to the rotation axis of pre-existing normal faults such that they were steepened and reactivated as strike slip structures during the ca. 500 Ma Delamerian Orogeny. We interpret that the Benagerie Shear Zone has not undergone uni-directional propagation during its evolution but rather through reactivation was a primary influence on controlling the nucleation of Neoproterozoic rift faults, thereby playing a major role in accommodating strain over a significant period of the evolution of the Curnamona Province. This study demonstrates that crustal-scale shear zones can evolve over hundreds of millions of years, have strike-lengths of hundreds to thousands of kilometers, and have vastly different surface expressions along strike.     

The deep mantle upwelling beneath the northwestern South China Sea:Insights from the time-varying residual subsidence in the Qiongdongnan Basin

Deep hot mantle upwelling is widely revealed around the Qiongdongnan Basin on the northwestern South China Sea margin.However,when and how it influenced the hyper-extended basin is unclear.To resolve these issues,a detailed analysis of the Cenozoic time-varying residual subsidence derived by subtracting the predicted subsidence from the backstripped subsidence was performed along a new seismic reflection line in the western Qiongdongnan Basin.For the first time,a method is proposed to cal-culate the time-varying strain rates constrained by the faults growth rates,on basis of which,the pre-dicted basement subsidence is obtained with a basin-and lithosphere-scale coupled finite extension model,and the backstripped subsidence is accurately recovered with a modified technique of backstrip-ping to eliminate the effects of later episodes of rifting on earlier sediment thickness.Results show no residual subsidence in 45-28.4 Ma.But after 28.4 Ma,negative residual subsidence occurred,reached and remained ca.-1000 m during 23-11.6 Ma,and reduced dramatically after 11.6 Ma.In the syn-rift period(45-23 Ma),the residual subsidence is ca.-1000 m,however in the post-rift period(23-0 Ma),it is positive of ca.300 to 1300 m increasing southeastwards.These results suggest that the syn-rift sub-sidence deficit commenced at 28.4 Ma,while the post-rift excess subsidence occurred after 11.6 Ma.Combined with previous studies,it is inferred that the opposite residual subsidence in the syn-and post-rift periods with similar large wavelengths(＞102 km)and km-scale amplitudes are the results of transient dynamic topography induced by deep mantle upwelling beneath the central QDNB,which started to influence the basin at ca.28.4 Ma,continued into the Middle Miocene,and decayed at ca.11.6 Ma.The initial mantle upwelling with significant dynamic uplift had precipitated considerable con-tinental extension and faulting in the Late Oligocene(28.4-23 Ma).After ca.11.6 Ma,strong mantle upwelling probably occurred beneath the Leizhou-Hainan area to form vast basaltic lava flow.     

莺歌海盆地异常裂后沉降的动力学机制

为了理解莺歌海盆地形成与演化的动力过程, 用回剥法和应变速率反演方法对该区的钻井和地层剖面资料进行了研究.研究结果表明莺歌海盆地观测得到的裂后沉降和模拟预测的理论裂后沉降结果存在较大差异, 其中在西北部为300~500 m, 中部和东南部为900~1200 m, 其异常裂后沉降明显呈现向东南和向海方向递大的趋势.地幔对流模型预测的结果表明, 20 Ma以来南海北部边缘的动力地貌沉降量为300 m, 因此, 莺歌海盆地裂后异常沉降在300 m左右的地区可以用动力地貌沉降机理来解释, 但是盆地中部和东南部的巨厚的异常沉降远大于动力地貌沉降量, 它是自晚中新世以来盆缘断层的右旋走滑作用、裂后热回沉和动力地貌沉降共同作用的结果.      

急斜特厚煤层开采地表沉陷特征立体实验研究

借助急斜煤层大型立体模拟试验架,对急斜煤层水平分段放顶煤开采地表变形破坏特征进行了开采的立体模拟试验研究。研究发现,急斜煤层开采后形成的沉陷不同于缓斜煤层,其沉陷最初由在地表生成的孔洞发展为孔洞间的贯通,形成塌陷坑。塌陷坑靠顶板侧岩体的垮落程度明显大于靠底板侧岩体的垮落程度,而且沉陷随着分段工作面的向下延伸表现为反复多次沉陷,塌陷坑内垮落体表现为由底板侧朝顶板侧的台阶式下降分布,最终形成深槽型塌陷坑。     

Application of a Generalised Influence Function Method for Subsidence Prediction in Multi-seam Longwall Extraction

The purpose of mining subsidence prediction is to produce a reliable assessment of ground movement arising from underground mineral extraction. The results of the prediction are used to assess the likelihood of the associated effects on surface structures. In most countries, the assessment of mining subsidence has become an essential part of mining plans, which must be approved by relevant government bodies and mining regulators. It is therefore important to develop a subsidence prediction method that is suitable for a particular country or mine field. Further to the recent development of a Generalised Influence Function Method (GIFM) for subsidence prediction at RMIT University, a case study in Hunter coalfield of in New South Wales, Australia is presented to illustrate the applicability of the GIFM approach for subsidence prediction in multi-seam longwall mining. A computer program is used to calculate subsidence, horizontal displacement and principle strains arising from the extraction of longwall panels. The observed subsidence across the longwall panels and the corresponding ground movements are compared to the model’s output and the results analysed. A discussion of the discrepancies between the GIFM models and the behaviour of complex geological strata is presented. The GIFM method is found to be a powerful tool when applied to complex extraction configurations and can produce useful output for mining subsidence assessments. Of particular importance is its ability to provide both tensile and compressive strain information over the whole affected areas which would otherwise not have been available for the assessment of damage potential to surface structures.     

Subsidence prediction method of solid backfilling mining with different filling ratios under thick unconsolidated layers

Solid backfill mining for coal pillar recovery in industrial squares has to ensure that the mine infrastructure, such as the shafts and substations, is not degraded or has its utility impaired by that mining. At the same time, it is important to recover as much coal as possible. As a result, it is necessary to predict mining subsidence during solid backfilling mining of coal pillars in industrial squares and to optimize the design of the working faces. At the Baishan coal mine in Anhiu province, China, there are thick layers of unconsolidated overburden above the coal seam so it is not appropriate to use the surface subsidence prediction method of equivalent mining height to predict subsidence during the mining of the coal pillars there. In order to find a reasonable coal pillar recovery scheme for the Baishan mine, a numerical simulation method is used to determine the relationships between the compression ratio of the backfilling material and the surface subsidence prediction parameters. Research was done to determine the appropriate parameters, and based on the final prediction parameters and taking the mandated protection standards for buildings and structures into account, surface subsidence is predicted and a backfill mining scheme for pillar recovery is proposed. The results show that of the six mining schemes considered, scheme 5 is the best scheme for coal pillar recovery in the industrial square at the Baishan mine. The research results are significant for similar mines with thick unconsolidated overburden anywhere in the world.     

基于遥感技术的兖济滕矿区采煤沉陷区现状及动态变化特征

利用遥感技术,对兖济滕矿区2000-2010年的采煤沉陷区动态变化进行了研究,结果表明,2010年,兖济滕矿区累计沉陷面积为88．43km^2,占整个矿区面积的3．53％。10年来,沉陷区面积呈直线上升趋势,由2000年的57．37km^2,增加到2010年的88．43km^2,平均年增沉陷地面积约为3．45km^2。采用遥感手段,在大范围内,可以较直观、准确地确定采煤沉陷区的范围、面积、形态、动态变化等特征,可为沉陷区的综合治理提供科学依据。     

北京西山煤炭采空区地面塌陷危险性分析

北京西山煤炭资源主要分布在百花山、庙安岭—髫髻山、九龙山—香峪大梁、北岭等向斜区，范围达1000km^2以上。含煤层位属石炭—二叠纪和侏罗纪，在已开采的煤炭产量中，有76％出自侏罗纪煤系，24％出自石炭—二叠纪煤系。在800余年开采历史中，已采出煤炭数亿吨。地表及地下浅部煤炭已被采完，在地下深部也形成了大面积多层次采空区。20世纪80年代以来，与采煤有关的地面塌陷灾害频繁凸现。本文作者通过对不同历史阶段采煤方法的差异、多层叠置的采空区结构特点等的分析，提出进入中—晚期开采时期的煤田，塌陷坑、地裂缝、山体滑塌、地面不均匀沉降、破坏性矿震等已构成灾害链，各类煤炭采空区进一步塌陷的危险性依然存在。在北京西山，不论是进一步的煤炭开采，还是地表居民的生产生活，以及国家未来的经济建设，都不应忽视煤炭采空区地面塌陷的危险性。     

The monitoring and prediction of mining subsidence in the Amaga,Angelopolis, Venecia and Bolombolo Regions,Antioquia, Colombia

Amaga, Angelopolis, Venecia and Bolombolo are small towns located in Antioquia, in the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes. Mining has been practised in this region for a period of at least 100 years. This mining has mainly been small-scale, poorly mechanised and restricted to shallow room and pillar workings. Recently, the semi-mechanisation of some mines has enabled coal to be extracted using longwall mining methods. However, this has resulted in subsidence that has caused severe damage to structures, residential property, and agricultural land, and also induced landslides. In the British Isles, there are several reliable methods that can be used to predict the likelihood and magnitude of mining subsidence. The British Coal Corporation and the University of Nottingham have developed one such method, the “Subsidence With Influence Function Technique (SWIFT).” Based on mining subsidence observations undertaken in the coalfields of Britain over a period of approximately 50 years. The SWIFT program was used to predict the magnitude of subsidence, above a longwall panel, at the Industrial Hullera mine in Colombia. The results were then compared with subsidence profiles obtained from precise levelling and field monitoring. In each case, the SWIFT program overestimated the magnitude of mining subsidence by 0.17–0.20 m. However, the morphology of the subsidence profile, area-of-influence and location of maximum subsidence were similar. This overestimation of the predicted subsidence was attributed to the occurrence of strong, igneous rocks, such as rhyolite sills, in the Colombian coal measures. These strong, competent horizons act as cantilever beams during subsidence, causing bed separation and therefore reducing the magnitude of subsidence. In spite of these differences, mining subsidence can be predicted with a reasonable degree of accuracy and precision using the SWIFT technique, provided the software is calibrated and used in conjunction with local expertise.     

On the topography influence on subsidence due to horizontal underground mining using the influence function method

The classical influence function method is widely used in mining subsidence prediction, but its use is typically limited to predicting the subsidence associated with horizontal stratiform underground mining when the ground surface is flat. By investigating the topography influence on subsidence under simplified mining conditions, this study attempts to improve the original influence function method to take topographic variations into account. New asymmetrical influence functions are used to simulate element subsidence. Integrating this asymmetrical approach into the influence function method increases the realism of subsidence computation when compared to the numerical simulation results. The maximum subsidence value and influence angle got from field data are introduced into the improved method, then two field subsidence cases are studied and acceptable comparison results are achieved. This improved method should serve as the foundation for future work.