海啸波作用下泥沙运动——Ⅰ.岸滩剖面变化分析

在波浪水槽实验的基础上,对海啸波作用下的岸滩剖面演变规律开展研究。实验采用1/10~1/20的组合坡度,考虑3种不同的水深,选取N波作为入射波,同时采用规则波和非规则波进行对比研究。实验对波高、波浪的上爬、回落和水跃过程、每个波作用后的地形进行了测量和记录。研究结果表明,水动力特性的不同造成了N波与规则波和不规则波作用下不同的岸滩剖面演变特点。N波作用下发生了明显的岸滩冲刷和淤积,水流回落时滩肩发生冲刷,高速薄层回流和出渗水流作用是滩肩冲刷的主要原因,离岸区水跃发生水流挟沙力降低,泥沙淤积呈沙坝剖面。     

Numerical study of sediment transport above rippled beds under the action of combined waves and currents

To study sediment suspension above ripples under the combined action of waves and currents, a three‐dimensional numerical model has been developed based on the use of FLUENT software, and an external sediment transport model. The computer model has been tested against laboratory measurements involving oscillatory wave motion, as well as cases of co‐linear waves with following and opposing currents, with satisfactory results. Compared with the situation in which only waves are present (called waves‐alone cases), the effects from the steady current on both vortex shedding and sediment suspension above ripples have clearly been revealed by the model results. In particular, the vortices generated in combined waves and currents tend to stay low in the trough area of the ripple and are ejected earlier than those in the waves‐alone case at both the ripple crest and trough, which leads to concentration peaks at different phases and with different magnitudes. The model was also applied to a field case from a multi‐barred, dissipative beach at Egmond‐an‐Zee, in the Netherlands, to investigate the influences of a long‐shore current on cross‐shore sediment transport. The model results show reasonable overall agreement with the field measurements, as well as the important effects of the three dimensional flow structure on the sediment entrainment process close to the ripple surface, which is very difficult to observe in such detail in field studies.     

Variations in the architecture of hydraulic‐jump bar complexes on non‐eroding beds

Sediment accumulation downstream of hydraulic jumps can occur in many settings but the architectures of such deposits are poorly documented. Here, three flume runs were used to examine the influence of sediment grain size and transport rate on the characteristics of hydraulic‐jump unit bars. In one of these runs six hydraulic‐jump unit bars formed a hydraulic‐jump bar complex. In another, the same sediment was supplied more quickly and only two unit bars formed. In the third run with the same sediment supply rate, but different grain size, only one large unit bar formed. All unit bars developed in a similar way but their size and internal architecture differed; they all resulted from a reduction in sediment transport capacity at the transition from supercritical flow to subcritical flow in the hydraulic jump. After initial onset of sedimentation and unit bar formation, generation of subsequent unit bars may be: (i) related to small changes in sediment flux; and (ii) independent of changes in the hydraulic jump. Continued sedimentation caused changes from oscillating to weak hydraulic jumps and hydraulic‐jump unit bars formed in both circumstances. The flow of water and suspended sediment becomes shallower over the lee of the bar complex. This leads to flow acceleration and a return to supercritical flow conditions. In turn, a chain of such features can form and generate a chute and pool bed morphology. There is an inherent upper size limit to a hydraulic‐jump bar complex due to the changing flow conditions over the growing deposit as the water above it becomes shallower. There is also an amplitude minimum for the development of foresets and subsequent unit bar growth. Hydraulic‐jump unit bars have architectures that should be recognizable in the rock record and because their size is constrained by the flow conditions, their identification should be useful for interpreting palaeoenvironment.     

Scour holes and ripples occur below the hydraulic smooth to rough transition of movable beds

Scour holes often form in shallow flows over sand on the beach and in morphodynamic scale experiments of river reaches, deltas and estuarine landscapes. The scour holes are on average 2 cm deep and 5 cm long, regardless of the flow depth and appear to occur under similar conditions as current ripples: at low boundary Reynolds numbers, in fine sand and under relatively low sediment mobility. In landscape experiments, where the flow is only about 1 cm deep, such scours may be unrealistically large and have unnatural effects on channel formation, bar pattern and stratigraphy. This study tests the hypotheses that both scours and ripples occur in the same conditions and that the roughness added by sediment saltation explains the difference between the ripple–dune transition and the clear‐water hydraulic smooth to rough transition. About 500 experiments are presented with a range of sediment types, sediment mobility and obstructions to provoke scour holes, or removal thereof to assess scour hole persistence. Most experiments confirm that ripples and scour holes both form in the ripple stability field in two different bedform stability diagrams. The experiments also show that scours can be provoked by perturbations even below generalized sediment motion. Moreover, the hydraulic smooth to rough transition modified with saltation roughness depending on sediment mobility was similar in magnitude and in slope to ripple–dune transitions. Given uncertainties in saltation relations, the smooth to rough transitions modified for movable beds are empirically equivalent to the ripple–dune transitions. These results are in agreement with the hypothesis that scours form by turbulence caused by localized flow separation under low boundary Reynolds numbers, and do not form under generalized flow separation over coarser particles and intense sediment saltation. Furthermore, this suggests that ripples are a superposition of two independent forms: periodic bedforms occurring in smooth and rough conditions plus aperiodic scours occurring only in hydraulic smooth conditions.     

白沙口海岸带沉积物的床面形态及层理构造

各种类型的沉积物床面形态及层理构造大量保存在沉积岩中,成为恢复古沉积环境和古地理的重要标志之一。1981年,作者在山东白沙口海岸,对海岸带不同地貌条件下的床面形态系列及层理构造进行了观测,并对其形成过程进行了探讨。     

Experimental control of beach face dynamics by watertable pumping

The dynamic sediment budget on the intertidal face of sandy surf beaches is influenced by interaction of swash/backwash flows with the beach watertable. Watertable height variations are coupled to tides and pass into the beach as a slow wave of diminishing amplitude and increasing lag. High-frequency pulses from the onshore wave train also propagate into the beach. The height at which the watertable outcrops on the beach face is affected by antecedent tide and wave history and influences balance of sand deposition and entrainment during swash and backwash. Experimental lowering of the watertable by pumping an array of wells induces sand deposition. Energy expended in pumping is less than 0.3% of the onshore flux in the wave train.     

Effect of velocity hiatuses in oscillatory flow on migration and geometry of ripples: wave‐flume experiments

A series of wave‐flume experiments was conducted to closely look at characteristics of geometry and migration of wave‐generated ripples, with particular reference to the effect of velocity ‘hiatuses’ during which the near‐bed flow velocity becomes much smaller than the threshold of sediment movement. Three types of wave patterns were generated: two types for simulating waves with intervening velocity hiatuses; and regular waves for comparison purposes. In the former two types, two different wavelengths of water waves were generated alternately in the course of a wave test: the wave with a longer wavelength was set large enough to mobilize the bottom sediment, whereas the wave with a shorter wavelength was set too small to mobilize the sediment. The former two types were designed to be different in sequence of convexity and concavity of wave patterns. The sequence with the convex–concave longer wave and successive convex–concave shorter wave was described as a ‘zero‐up‐crossing’ wave pattern, and the inverse sequence was described as a ‘zero‐down‐crossing’ wave pattern. The ripples developed under oscillatory flow with intervening hiatuses manifested the following characteristics in geometry and migration. (i) The morphological characteristics of ripples, namely wavelength, height and the ripple steepness, are unaffected by the intervening hiatuses of velocity. (ii) The directions of ripple migration under the zero‐up‐crossing and zero‐down‐crossing wave patterns corresponded well with the directions of the flow immediately before onset of the hiatuses. (iii) The observation of sand particle movement on the ripple surface indicated that, under the zero‐up‐crossing waves, the velocity hiatus prevents the entrained sediment cloud from being thrown onshore, and thus the sediment grains thrown onshore are fewer than those thrown offshore. As a result of the sediment movement over one wave‐cycle, the net sediment transport is directed offshore under the zero‐up‐crossing wave pattern. (iv) The velocity of ripple migration was highly correlated with acceleration skewness. Under most of the zero‐up‐crossing (zero‐down‐crossing) wave patterns, flow acceleration skewed negative (positive) and ripples migrated offshore (onshore).     

海啸波作用下泥沙运动——Ⅳ.建筑物局部冲刷

基于波浪水槽实验,以沿海公路为对象,对海啸波作用下建筑物局部冲刷机理开展研究。实验采用1/10与1/20的组合坡度,选取N波作为入射波。实验对波高、波浪的上爬、回落和水跃过程、每个波作用后的地形进行了测量和记录。实验结果表明,N波作用下地形发生冲淤变化,在回落水流所形成的螺旋流作用下,路基向海侧形成明显的冲刷坑。路基所在位置是最主要因素,波高是次要因素,路基深度影响较小。路基位于滩肩侵蚀发生处,则最大冲刷深度相对较大。     

Flow patterns, sedimentation and deposit architecture under a hydraulic jump on a non-eroding bed: defining hydraulic-jump unit bars

This paper presents results from two flume runs of an ongoing series examining flow structure, sediment transport and deposition in hydraulic jumps. It concludes in the presentation of a model for the development of sedimentary architecture, considered characteristic of a hydraulic jump over a non-eroding bed. In Run 1, a hydraulic jump was formed in sediment-free water over the solid plane sloping flume floor. Ultrasonic Doppler velocity profilers recorded the flow structure within the hydraulic jump in fine detail. Run 2 had identical initial flow conditions and a near-steady addition of sand, which formed beds with two distinct characteristics: a laterally extensive, basal, wedge-shaped massive sand bed overlain by cross-laminated sand beds. Each cross-laminated bed recorded the initiation and growth of a single surface feature, here defined as a hydraulic-jump unit bar . A small massive sand mound formed on the flume floor and grew upstream and downstream without migrating to form a unit bar. In the upstream portion of the unit bar, sand finer than the bulk load formed a set of laminae dipping upstream. This set passed downstream through the small volume of massive sand into a foreset, which was initially relatively coarse-grained and became finer-grained downstream. This downstream-fining coincided with cessation of the growth of the upstream-dipping cross-set. At intervals, a new bed feature developed above and upstream of the preceding hydraulic-jump unit bar and grew in the same way, with the foreset climbing the older unit bar. The composite architecture of the superimposed unit bars formed a fanning, climbing coset above the massive wedge, defined as one unit: a hydraulic-jump bar complex .     

Sedimentology,ichnology and hydrodynamics of strait‐margin,sand and gravel beaches and shorefaces: Juan de Fuca Strait,British Columbia,Canada

On the south‐west coast of Vancouver Island, Canada, sedimentological and ichnological analysis of three beach–shoreface complexes developed along a strait margin was undertaken to quantify process–response relations in straits and to develop a model for strait‐margin beaches. For all three beaches, evidence of tidal processes are expressed best in the lower shoreface and offshore and, to a lesser extent, in the middle shoreface. Tidal currents are dominant offshore, below 18 m water depth (relative to the mean spring high tide), whereas wave processes dominate sediment deposition in the nearshore (intertidal zone to 5 m water depth). From 18 to 5 m water depth, tidal processes decrease in importance relative to wave processes. The relatively high tidal energy in the offshore and lower shoreface is manifest sedimentologically by the dominance of sand, of a similar grain size to the upper shoreface/intertidal zone and, by the prevalence of current‐generated structures (current ripples) oriented parallel to the shoreline. In addition, the offshore and lower shoreface of strait‐bound beach–shoreface complexes are recognized ichnologically by traces typical of the Skolithos Ichnofacies. This situation contrasts to the dominantly horizontal feeding traces characteristic of the Cruziana Ichnofacies that are prevalent in the lower shoreface and offshore of open‐coast (wave‐dominated) beach–shorefaces. These sedimentological and ichnological characteristics reflect tidal influence on sediment deposition; consequently, the term ‘tide‐influenced shoreface’ most accurately describes these depositional environments.     

Time as an independent variable for current ripples developing towards linguoid equilibrium morphology

Flume experiments show that current ripples on very fine sand surfaces always develop towards a linguoid shape with constant height and wavelength provided that sufficient time is allowed for their formation. Straight and sinuous current ripples only reflect intermediate stages in ripple development and may be regarded as non-equilibrium bedforms. The time period which current ripples require to reach linguoid equilibrium morphology is related to an inverse power of flow velocity. In the transitional stage from current ripples to upper stage plane bed (i.e. washed-out ripple stage) only the equilibrium wavelength remains constant, whereas equilibrium height rapidly decreases to zero. Our observations imply that bed-roughness parameters in sediment transport calculations can be simplified when equilibrium conditions are attained, and that inferences about flow energy from the dimensions of current ripples in very fine sand need to be regarded with caution.     

Response of sand ripples to change in oscillatory flow

Ripples take time to evolve to a new equilibrium state in response to a change in wave-generated oscillatory flow. The paper presents results from flow tunnel experiments designed to examine oscillatory flow transient ripple processes under controlled, full-scale laboratory conditions. The experiments include study of the growth of ripples from flat bed and the evolution of existing ripples to new equilibrium ripples in response to a step change in the flow. In general, ripples evolve through a combination of two main processes: (i) from a flat bed or from a bed consisting of ripples that are smaller than the equilibrium ripples through a combination of 'slide' and 'merge'; (ii) from a bed consisting of ripples that are larger than the equilibrium ripples through a combination of 'split' and 'merge'. The experimental results show that equilibrium ripple geometry is independent of initial bed morphology while the time to reach equilibrium is largely independent of the initial bed and the equilibrium ripple size. The time to reach equilibrium depends strongly on the mobility number, and a new empirical equation relating mobility number and the number of flow cycles to equilibrium is proposed. This equation is combined with a simple exponential function for ripple height growth or decay to produce a new empirical model for ripple height evolution, which gives a reasonably good overall agreement with the measurements. The model is based on experiments involving one sediment size only and further work is needed to develop the model for other sand sizes.     

海啸波作用下泥沙运动——Ⅲ. 数学模型的建立与验证

基于Boussinesq方程耦合泥沙运动和地形演变模型,建立海啸作用下泥沙运动数学模型。地形演变模型采用WENO差分格式,并将WENO差分格式与Lax-Wendroff格式和FTBS格式进行对比分析。运用Synolakis、Kobayashi和Young的实验数据分别对水动力模块和地形演变模块进行验证,数值模拟结果与实验数据吻合良好,模型能够很好地模拟海啸波的传播、破碎、上爬、回落过程以及岸滩的冲淤变化过程,该数学模型能够运用到海啸作用下的岸滩演变研究和预测中。     

The motion of sediment-water mixtures during intense bedload transport: computer simulations

A new model, which couples fluid and particle dynamics, has been developed to study the motion of the sediment-water mixture during intense bedload transport, including the velocity profiles of both sediment and water, the roughness length of an upper plane bed and the thickness of moving sediment layers. Standard mixing length theory is used to model the motion of water above the boundary between the overlying water and the sediment-water mixture. The turbulent flow within the moving sediment layers is described by a shear stress model, in which the effective viscosity of the flowing water is proportional to the velocity difference between the fluid and the sediment. The particle dynamics method, in which the equations of motion of each of many particles are solved directly, is applied to model the movement of sediment particles. The particle-fluid interaction is expressed by a velocity-squared fluid drag force exerted on each sediment particle. Both computer simulation results and theoretical analysis have shown that the velocities of both sediment and fluid during intense sediment transport decrease exponentially with depth in the top layers of a fast-moving sediment—water mixture. The thickness of the moving sediment layers, obtained from the computer simulation results, is proportional to the shear stress, which agrees with previous experimental observations.     

Zur Geometrie von Wellenrippeln in Sanden unterschiedlicher Korngröße

Field research of wave generated bed forms within complex sediment size distributions near the inlet of a tidal lagoon at the northern coast of Brittany has stimulated an experimental study in a laboratory wave tank. Several sediment mixtures, most of them with bimodal grain size distributions, were exposed to different monochromatic shallow water waves. The observations and measurements included the dynamics of the water waves and the generation, shape, and size of oscillatory bed forms. The experiments confirm the known relationship between grain size and ripple size. In addition it is shown that coarse sand, added to a preexisting fine bed material leads to an increasing asymmetry of ripples. There is some suggestion that the variability of ripple heights is reduced by higher contents of coarse sand. Bimodal sediment size distributions obviously do not cause unusual geometry of ripples — at least within the range of the experimental tests. The different sand size modes move together in one phase, forming structures with more or less homogeniously distributed bed material. Differentiation of sediment sorting does of course occur, but this is in the range of the whole test section. Finally the experiments allowed to test the validity of some wave formulas. The own experiments are compared with some results from field and laboratory studies of other authors.     

浅水非线性波作用下沙纹床面底层流动特性试验研究

通过水槽试验研究浅水非线性波作用下沙纹床面底层流动特性,利用CCD图像技术观测分析非对称沙纹的形成和演化规律。利用声学多普勒测速仪(ADV)测量非对称沙纹底床上的流场,得到了不同波高、周期、水深条件下的沙纹峰顶和谷底断面的瞬时速度。试验结果分析表明,浅水非线性波作用下床面上形成非对称沙纹,其近底流速具有较强紊动特性,随着距床面距离的增大紊动强度逐渐减弱。在水流方向改变时,沙纹背部具有明显漩涡运动。沙纹背后形成的漩涡能起到维持沙纹的作用。浅水非线性波作用下,沙纹的形成原因主要是床面泥沙颗粒在非对称流动和床面近壁粘性底层中漩涡结构动力作用下,作受迫摆动、推移所致。     

Sediment trend models fail to reproduce small-scale sediment transport patterns on an intertidal beach

A rigorous test is presented of the application of sediment trend models to an intertidal beach environment characterized by bar morphology. Sediment samples were collected during low tide from a regular grid and their sediment fall velocity distributions, obtained using a settling tube, were analysed using moment analysis. The net sediment transport direction determined from beach surveys, hydrodynamic measurements, wave ripple observations and sediment transport modelling was compared with predictions by sediment trend models based on the spatial distribution of sediment parameters. It was found that the sediment transport pathways and patterns of sedimentation predicted using sediment trend models were at odds with field observations, and varied significantly depending on whether surface or sub‐surface sediment samples were used. The sediment trend models are thought to fail because, in energetic and morphologically variable beach environments, spatial patterns in sediment characteristics are mainly attributed to the presence of different hydrodynamic regions and associated morphology, rather than sediment pathways. The use of sediment trend models cannot replace the collection of morphological, hydrodynamic and sediment transport data in the field to define relationships between flows, forms and sedimentation patterns on a dynamic intertidal beach.     

A unified model for bedform development and equilibrium under unidirectional,oscillatory and combined‐flows

The development of bedforms under unidirectional, oscillatory and combined‐flows results from temporal changes in sediment transport, flow and morphological response. In such flows, the bedform characteristics (for example, height, wavelength and shape) change over time, from their initiation to equilibrium with the imposed conditions, even if the flow conditions remain unchanged. These variations in bedform morphology during development are reflected in the sedimentary structures preserved in the rock record. Hence, understanding the time and morphological development in which bedforms evolve to an equilibrium stage is critical for informed reconstruction of the ancient sedimentary record. This article presents results from a laboratory flume study on bedform development and equilibrium development time conducted under purely unidirectional, purely oscillatory and combined‐flow conditions, which aimed to test and extend an empirical model developed in past work solely for unidirectional ripples. The present results yield a unified model for bedform development and equilibrium under unidirectional, oscillatory and combined‐flows. The experimental results show that the processes of bedform genesis and growth are common to all types of flows, and can be characterized into four stages: (i) incipient bedforms; (ii) growing bedforms; (iii) stabilizing bedforms; and (iv) fully developed bedforms. Furthermore, the development path of bedform; growth exhibits the same general trend for different flow types (for example, unidirectional, oscillatory and combined‐flows), bedform size (for example, small versus large ripples), bedform shape (for example, symmetrical or rounded), bedform planform geometry (for example, two‐dimensional versus three‐dimensional), flow velocities and sediment grain sizes. The equilibrium time for a wide range of bed configurations was determined and found to be inversely proportional to the sediment transport flux occurring for that flow condition.     

On the entrainment of sediment and initiation of bed defects: insights from recent developments within turbulent boundary layer research

Sediment entrainment and the initiation of bed defects has commonly been ascribed to the impact of high velocity sweeps upon mobile sand beds. Results of visualization experiments suggest that these sweep impacts are grouped and may define ‘patches’of entrainment upon a mobile bed that may be wider than an individual sweep impact. Additionally, the presence of longitudinal ribs of sediment generated by sweep impacts may stabilize the position of sweeps and low speed streaks. These observations are interpreted in the light of recent boundary layer research which suggests the formation of multiple hairpin shaped vortices within turbulent flows: these are postulated to generate multiple sweeps that manifest themselves as entrainment patches on a mobile bed. These features of the turbulent boundary layer and its modification by sweep generated sediment ridges can be used to propose a model for bed defect formation and the subsequent development of current ripples.