SIGNATURES FROM SINGLE AIRGUNS*

The far-field signatures from a comprehensive and systematic airgun pulse test have been analyzed. Empirical relations between the characteristic signature parameters and depth (5–12 m), pressure (100–137 bar = 10–13.7 MPa) and total chamber volume (0.65–9.5 l) have been derived. Also, the influence of using waveshape kits in different positions within the chamber has been tested. The results indicate that:

• 1 The amplitude is proportional to chamber pressure to the power 3/4.
• 2 The bubble period is nearly independent of the position of the waveshape plate.
• 3 The increase in primary/bubble amplitude ratio is inversely proportional to the chamber volume above the waveshape plate.
• 4 The amplitude is independent of airgun depth.

Suggestions and comments regarding this work from Dr B. Ursin and Dr A. Ziolkowski are appreciated. The field work was supported by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate through the Continental Shelf Project at the Seismological Observatory, University of Bergen. An airgun allowing for continuous variation of the chamber volumes was supplied by GECO (Geophysical Company of Norway). The purchase of two airguns was financed by Norske Getty Exploration A/S.     

Marine seismic sources: QC of wavefield computation from near-field pressure measurements

A commercial marine seismic survey has been completed with the wavefield from the n-element (single guns and clusters) airgun array measured for every shot using an array of n + 2 near-field hydrophones, n of which were required to determine the source wavefield, the remaining two providing a check on the computation. The source wavefield is critical to the determination of the seismic wavelet for the extraction of reflection coefficients from seismic reflection data and for tying the data to wells. The wavefield generated by the full array of interacting airguns can be considered to be the superposition of n spherical pressure waves, or notional source signatures, the n hydrophone measurements providing a set of n simultaneous equations for each shot. The solution of the equations for the notional source signatures requires three ingredients: the geometry of the gun ports and near-field hydrophones; the sensitivity of each hydrophone recording channel; and the relative motion between the near-field hydrophones and the bubbles emitted by the guns. The geometry was measured on the back deck using a tape measure. A calibration data set was obtained at the approach to each line, in which each gun was fired on its own and the resulting wavefield was measured with the near-field hydrophones and recorded. The channel sensitivities, or conversion from pressure at the hydrophones to numbers on the tape, were found for each near-field hydrophone channel using the single gun calibration data, the measured geometry, and the peak pressure from each gun, known from the manufacturer’s calibration. The relative motion between the guns and hydrophones was obtained from the same calibration data set by minimizing the energy in the computed notional source signatures at the guns which did not fire. The full array data were then solved for the notional source signatures, and the pressure was computed at the two spare hydrophones and compared with the actual recordings. The rms errors were 5.3% and 2.8% and would have been smaller if the hydrophone channel sensitivities had been properly calibrated beforehand and if the movement of the guns with respect to the hydrophones had been more restricted. This comparison of the predicted and measured signatures at spare hydrophones can, in principle, be done on every shot and we recommend that this be implemented as a standard quality control procedure whenever it is desired to measure the wavefield of a marine seismic source.     

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON AIRGUN SIGNATURES1

Experiments in an 850 litre water tank were performed in order to study temperature effects on airgun signatures, and to achieve a better understanding of the physical processes that influence an airgun signature. The source was a bolt airgun with a chamber volume of 1.6 cu.in. The pressure used was 100 bar and the gun depth was 0.5 m. The water temperature in the tank was varied between 5°C and 45°C. Near-field signatures were recorded at different water temperatures. Typical signature characteristics such as the primary-to-bubble ratio and the bubble time period increased with increasing water temperature. For comparison and in order to check whether this is valid for larger guns, computer modelling of airguns with chamber volumes of 1.6 and 40 cu.in. was performed. In the modelling the same behaviour of the signatures with increasing water temperature can be observed. The increase in the primary-to-bubble ratio and the bubble time period with increasing water temperature can be explained by an increased mass transfer across the bubble wall.     

High-speed photography of the bubble generated by an airgun1

High-speed photography has been used visually to study the shape, surface, turbulence and behaviour of an underwater oscillating bubble generated by an airgun. The source was a BOLT airgun with a chamber volume of 1.6cu.in., placed in a 0.85m³ tank at 0.5m depth. Near-field signatures were also recorded in order to compare the instant photographs of the oscillating bubble with the pressure field recorded about 25 cm from the gun. Estimations of the bubble-wall velocity and bubble radius estimated from high-speed film sequences are also presented, and are compared with modelled results. The deviation between the modelled and measured bubble radii was at most 9%. In order to check the capacity for transmission of light through the bubble, a concentrated laser beam was used as illumination. We found that the air bubble is a strong scattering medium of laser light, hence the bubble is opaque.     

THE SCALING OF AIRGUN ARRAYS,INCLUDING DEPTH DEPENDENCE AND INTERACTIONS*

The article provides a theoretical basis for the extension of the method of scaling law deconvolution to three dimensions using airgun arrays as a sound source. Earlier papers by the author required the dimensions of the scaled sources to be different while the depths and firing pressures were maintained the same in order to preserve the same dynamics of the scaled sources at scaled time. However, this forces the source ghost to be considered as part of the impulse response of the earth rather than as part of the downgoing source wave. And, in fact, the dynamics of the scaled sources are not the same at the same depth because the ghost reflection modulates the behaviour of the oscillating bubbles generated by the airguns, and this modulation does not scale. To force the sources to scale properly, including the ghost interaction, the larger source must be put at greater depth, where hydrostatic pressure is greater, and the initial firing pressure must be adjusted accordingly. Thus, the depth, initial firing pressure and gun volume are all variables. The interaction among guns in scaled airgun arrays also scales exactly if the geometry of an array and the depth of its deployment are scaled by the same factor.     

A Comparative Study on the Excitation of Large Volume Airgun Source with Different Combinations in Hutubi, Xinjiang, China

In order to study the excitation of large-volume airgun source with different combinations in Hutubi, Xinjiang,China,we conducted a targeted experiment. The method of time-frequency analysis is used to study the signals recorded by a seismometer on the shore of the excited pool, and it is concluded that different gun combinations will lead to different frequency of bubble pulse signals. Besides, linear combination method is used to analyze the signal-to-noise ratios of signals excited by different gun combinations which was recorded by seismic stations around the airgun source. In order to improve the signal-to-noise ratios, it is more effective to increase the activation energy (the number of excited guns at the same time) than to stack the excited signals with smaller energy repeatedly.     

SIGNATURE AND AMPLITUDE OF LINEAR AIRGUN ARRAYS *

During the last few years many airgun arrays have been designed with the objective of generating a short signature of high amplitude. For linear arrays of non-interacting airguns two rules have been derived that may help in the design or evaluation of airgun arrays. To achieve a short pressure pulse, the total available air volume has to be distributed over the individual guns in such a way that the tail of the signal, owing to the added bubble signals, becomes as flat as possible. When we think of ordering airguns according to volume, this flat signal tail can be achieved by designing the volumes such that the difference in bubble times of two adjacent guns is proportional to their volume to the power 2/3. The amplitude expected from a linear array of non-interacting airguns is limited by the physical length of the array. A graph of measured values tends to confirm this relation. No relation has been found between the total volume of an array and its amplitude. The graph also detects inefficient use of available array length of existing arrays.     

大容量气枪震源子波时频特性及其影响因素

通过分析福建街面水库气枪实验的近场水听器记录,研究气枪子波时频特性及其受沉放深度和工作压力的影响,并结合气泡模型解释气泡振荡过程。数据分析表明：①气枪子波由主脉冲和气泡脉冲组成。主脉冲振幅大,持时短,频带宽,通常应用于浅部探测;气泡脉冲能量集中在低频段,垂直穿透深,水平传播远,通常应用于深部探测。②随沉放深度的增加,主脉冲振幅变化很小,气泡脉冲振幅增加,初泡比减小,气泡周期减小,低频段主频增加。沉放深度为10m时,主脉冲振幅和初泡比最大,可应用于浅部探测;沉放深度为25m时,气泡脉冲振幅很大,初泡比最小,可应用于深部探测。③工作压力增加时,主脉冲振幅、气泡脉冲振幅、初泡比、气泡周期等随之增大,低频段主频则减小。     

气枪震源激发模式及应用

气枪震源是一种重要的人工地震震源。气枪阵列理论的提出,使得气枪阵列设计技术日趋成熟,并能够在石油勘探和地球物理探测中得到更加广泛的运用。气枪震源在不同领域中应用时,需要不同的组合和激发模式,以适应不同的探测要求。加强主脉冲和加强气泡脉冲,是目前两种主要的气枪激发模式。通过比较研究两种气枪激发模式,讨论各种激发模式在激发时间、气枪间距、频率、分辨率等方面的差异,为气枪震源的广泛运用提供依据。     

Using an airgun array in a land reservoir as the seismic source for seismotectonic studies in northern China: experiments and preliminary results

This paper reports the field setup and preliminary results of experiments utilizing an airgun array in a reservoir in north China for a seismotectonic study. Commonly used in offshore petroleum resource exploration, the airgun source was found to be more useful than a traditional explosive source for large‐scale and long offset land seismic surveys. The airgun array, formed by four 1,500 in³ airguns (a total of 6,000 in³ in volume) was placed at a depth of 6–9 m into the reservoir to generate the pressure impulse. No direct evidence was found that the airgun source adversely affected the fish in the reservoir. The peak ground acceleration recorded on the top of the reservoir dam 100 m away was 17.8 gal in the horizontal direction; this is much less than the designed earthquake‐resistance threshold of 125 gal for this dam. The energy for one shot of this airgun array is about 6.68 MJ, equivalent to firing a 1.7 kg explosive. The seismic waves generated by the airgun source were recorded by receivers of the regional seismic networks and a temporary wide‐angle reflection and refraction profile formed by 100 short‐period seismometers with the maximum source‐receiver offset of 206 km. The seismic wave signature at these long‐offset stations is equivalent to that generated by a traditional blast source in a borehole with a 1,000–2,000 kg explosive. Preliminary results showed clear seismic phases from refractions from the multi‐layer crustal structures in the north China region. Forward modelling using numerical simulation confirms that the seismic arrivals are indeed from lower crustal interfaces. The airgun source is efficient, economical, environmentally friendly and suitable for being used in urbanized areas. It has many advantages over an explosive source for seismotectonic studies such as the high repeatability that is supreme for stacking to improve signal qualities. The disadvantage is that the source is limited to existing lakes or reservoirs, which may restrict experimental geometry.     

TEST RESULTS OF A NEW TYPE OF EFFICIENT SMALL AIRGUN ARRAY*

Recently the author developed and demonstrated (Safar 1980) an efficient method for operating the airgun. The method involves the generation of a short seismic pulse from the pressure bubble pulses radiated by an airgun when fired several times at the same optimum depth but with different chamber pressures. The purpose of this paper is to present and discuss the test results obtained when implementing the same method using a two-dimensional airgun array. The array consists of seven 0.65 liter airguns fired simultaneously at the same depth but with different chamber pressures. It is shown that the far-field pressure pulse radiated by the seven 0.65 liter airgun array is similar to that radiated by the Flexichoc seismic source. It is concluded that the proposed airgun array can be used as a subarray to form an extremely powerful super-long array suitable for deep seismic exploration. The author would like to thank the Chairman and Board of Directors of the British Petroleum Co. Ltd for permission to publish this paper. Thanks are also due to Mike Symes and Lovell Cox for carrying out the field tests and Seismograph Service (England) Ltd for providing the airguns.     

气枪震源波形走时变化分析的反褶积处理

利用云南省宾川主动源基地周边10km范围内7个流动台站2017年2月气枪震源集中激发时段记录的气枪信号,使用干涉法计算了直接使用波形和将波形与参考台反褶积后的格林函数两种处理方法下气枪信号的走时变化。使用了气枪震源附近不同方位角的两个参考台的数据,以分析不同参考台对走时变化结果的影响。结果表明:反褶积能较为有效的压制气枪震源的时间、空间和频谱轻微不重复性导致的走时变化;反褶积能降低一些来源不明的伪走时变化;使用CKT2的数据反褶积的结果略优于CKT0,其可能原因是气枪阵列沿方位角的非均匀辐射。     

PNEUMATIC ACOUSTIC ENERGY SOURCE*

In recent years considerable work has been done to devise a satisfactory non-dynamite seismic system that would replace dynamite in offshore areas. Prior to the advent of digital recording and processing, the non-dynamite sources have generally not provided the depth of penetration or the resolution required for satisfactory seismic interpretation. More recent developments in non-dynamite offshore marine sources include adaptation of the Vibroseis from a land unit to a marine unit, and adaptation of the Dinoseis unit from a land to a marine unit. The SUE (Seismic Underwater Explorer) system is a thermodynamic non-dynamite source utilizing a mixture of propane and oxygen detonated in a special chamber approximately 15 feet below the water surface. This source gives penetration to more than 4 sec in areas typified by Gulf of Mexico type geology and shows deeper penetration than had previously been obtained by dynamite along the western United States in areas with 20 lb charge limitations. A pneumatic source, the airgun, has been in production use in the United States since June 1966. This non-dynamite source provides an intriguing amount of versatility and can be expanded to provide additional energy as necessary to obtain the penetration desired. Tests using systems comprised of from eight to twenty-three airguns show penetration in excess of 5 seconds in many areas. Power spectra comparisons both in amplitude and frequency content demonstrate that this is a controlled source generating a controlled seismic wavelet and a controlled frequency spectrum that can be tailored to fit requirements of particular areas. Sample sections obtained in the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean offshore California show adequate penetration to 5.0 seconds reflection time. Quantitative measurements with the airguns demonstrate the effect of:

• 1 Variation of the number of guns in the system;
• 2 Shaping the frequency spectrum by using different sizes of airguns in the system;
• 3 Effects on signal-to-noise ratios as a result of stacking several small energy sources together;
• 4 Reproducibility of the initial pulse wavelet from shot to shot.

The improvement in record quality as a result of advanced digital processing with non-dynamite sources is comparable to that obtained with dynamite sources. Non-dynamite sources make additional improvements possible where high source multiplicity is advantageous. Excellent dynamic correlations yield accurate velocity control as well as definitions of apparent velocities attributable to multiples and primary-to-multiple amplitude relationships. Non-dynamite sources are being used more and more extensively in offshore exploration. The advent of digital recording and processing provides a means for improving depth of penetration and resolution of many non-dynamite sources.     

COMPUTATION OF SIGNATURES OF LINEAR AIRGUN ARRAYS*

Far-field signatures from an airgun array are usually obtained by carrying out extensive field measurements. In order to decrease the need for such measurements, we have developed a method for computing signatures from linear airgun arrays where the distances between the airguns are such that the non-linear interaction among the airguns is negligible. The signature from a single airgun of a given type is computed from the following airgun parameters: airgun chamber volume, chamber pressure, airgun depth and position of the waveshape plate within the chamber. For calibration purposes, a recorded signature for one set of airgun parameters has to be provided for each type of airgun. The signatures are computed by using empirical relations between signature properties and the airgun parameters, and by treating the primary and bubble pulses separately. The far-field signature from a linear airgun array can now be computed by summation of the delayed signatures from the airguns in the array. Practical results are shown for an array with different PAR (Bolt) 1500 C airguns.     

A comparison between airguns and explosives as wide-angle seismic sources

The relative merits of a 48-gun, 9324 cu. in. (153 litre) airgun array and a 200 kg explosive source are considered for the purposes of long-range (0–400 km) refraction seismic work, with particular reference to traveltime modelling. Theoretical source calculations indicate that in the frequency range 2.5–12.0 Hz, the airgun source will produce an RMS pressure ∼ 8% of that produced by the explosive source and an initial burst pressure ∼17% of that produced by the explosive source. Observed data support these calculations at short ranges and illustrate the greater attenuation of the airgun signal with range due to its lack of very low frequency (< 5 Hz) content. At short offsets, the airgun array provides a preferable seismic source to the explosives, due to densely spaced shots and a consistent waveform resulting in excellent trace-to-trace coherence. With increasing offsets, it may be necessary to stack the airgun data to enhance its signal-to-noise ratio: here we use a 4-fold stack. Large explosive shots, although more powerful, produce a less consistent waveform and are more widely spaced due to operational constraints. The offset at which airguns provide a preferable source is dependent on the ambient noise. This practical comparison of real sources demonstrates that, even without advanced processing, a well-tuned airgun array may provide a preferable source to explosives at offsets up to 160 km, under favourable experimental conditions.     

MODELLING OF GI GUN SIGNATURES1

In 1989 a new type of marine seismic source was introduced. This new air-gun, which consists of two air chambers instead of one, is called the GI gun. The main feature of this gun is that the bubble created by the gun is stabilized by an injection of extra air from the second chamber at a later time. This injection mechanism reduces the amplitude of the bubble oscillations, which also means that the acoustic signal from a GI gun shot is characterized by a very clean primary pulse followed by very small bubble oscillations. A method for calculating the acoustic signal generated by a GI gun is presented. Based on the solution of a damped Kirkwood–Bethe equation, the far-field pressure of single GI guns and of arrays of GI guns is calculated. It is shown that the optimal values for injection start time and injection period vary with injector volume and gun depth. It is also shown that the precision in the firing time for the injector should be of the order of 4 ms, while the precision of the injection period should be of the order of 8 ms. Modelled and measured far-field signatures have been compared, and the relative error energy is found to be less than 3.5% for all examples.     

Experiments on Exploration of Shallow Fine Structures and the Construction of the 1-D Velocity Model in the Pingtan Island, Fujian

112 short-period seismographs were set up in the 400km² area of Pingtan Island and its surrounding areas in Fujian. The combined observations of the airgun source and ambient noise source were carried out using a dense array to receive the 387 airgun signals excited around the island and one month of continuous ambient noise recording. The 1-D P-wave and S-wave shallow velocity model of Pingtan Island is obtained by the inversion of the airgun body wave''s first arrival time data, and the reliability of the velocity model is verified by using the surface wave phase velocity dispersion curve, which can provide initial model for subsequent 3-D imaging. The experimental results show that this experiment is a successful demonstration of local scale green non-destructive detection, which can provide basic data for shallow surface structure research and strong vibration simulation of the Pingtan Island.     

SYSTEM APPROACH TO AIR-GUN ARRAY DESIGN *

To specify intelligently a nondynamite source in a marine seismic data-collection system, it is important to use all known parameters of the system—source, receiver, and recording-system characteristics. A technique has been developed to design the far-field pressure pulse of an air-gun array by taking these parameters into account. Important source variables to consider are interaction among guns in the array and the depth of the array. Near-field pressure signatures of individual guns, which are relatively unaffected by boundaries, have been used to‘construct’the far-field pressure pulse of the array by considering these variables. Comparison between constructed pulses and measured far-field pulses shows substantial agreement. Streamer depth and recording-system bandpass should also be considered when designing an air-gun array. Comparison of far-field pressure pulses for several bandpasses clearly shows the importance of considering this variable; e.g., the initial pulse is severely attenuated when a high-cut filter is used. Likewise, an additional filtering effect due to the streamer's proximity to the surface should be taken into account. Design of an air-gun array using the principles just outlined are illustrated by an example.     

An Experimental Study on Modulating the Large Volume Airgun Array Signals through Asynchronous Excitation

Large volume airgun arrays have been widely used in exploring and monitoring underground structures for nearly a decade. Nowadays, large volume airgun arrays adopt the synchronous excitation mode, and source characteristics are controlled by the source signal of a single airgun, which to some extent limits its application. In order to realize the asynchronous excitation of the airgun array, we developed a new firing system for the airgun array, and carried out a field experiment in the Binchuan Fixed Airgun Signal Transmission station to study the influences of the asynchronous excitation on the source signal. The experimental results show that:the newly developed airgun array firing system can ignite the airguns according to the setting time series with high precision. By designing the excitation time series, the asynchronous excitation can enhance the energy of airgun source signal at 3-5Hz, and reduce the energy of pressure pulse wave at 6-18Hz. The signal detection capability of the asynchronous excitation with time series mode is equivalent to the synchronous excitation.     

INTERACTION EFFECTS IN MARINE SEISMIC SOURCE ARRAYS*

Past design of marine source arrays has been based on one or more of the following principles:

• (i) simultaneous operation of multiple identical sources to increase radiated signal strength by simple addition;
• (ii) superposition of wavelets of different fundamental frequency to achieve a total pulse of desired, front-loaded form (e.g. mixed volume air-gun arrays);
• (iii) horizontal spacing of units or groups to achieve spatial filtering effects.

The phenomenon of interaction between sources, affecting the loading experienced by each, has usually been ignored, or else avoided by wide spacing of units. However, interactions can significantly affect the efficiency and frequency response, in a way that can be favourable. Calculations are presented for sources emitting continuous or long duration signals, showing the energy efficiency as a function of frequency for arrays in a variety of configurations. Interaction effects are significant for inter-source spacings smaller than or comparable with the wavelength—not, as is often stated, up to a distance related to the radii of the sources. The results show that potential exists for tailoring the frequency response of a source system, according to the application, by simple spatial rearrangement of units. Similar effects occur with interacting impulsive sources, but it is shown that different criteria apply for the optimum arrangements of units.