Degassing history and carbon cycle of the Earth: From an impact-induced steam atmosphere to the present atmosphere

The recent theoretical studies on the formation and evolution of the atmosphere and oceans of the Earth are reviewed. Impact degassing during accretion of the Earth would probably generate an impact-induced steam atmosphere on the proto-Earth. At the end of accretion, the steam atmosphere became unstable and condensed to form the proto-ocean with almost the present mass of ocean. The steam atmosphere would have thus evolved to the proto-CO₂ atmosphere during the earliest history of the Earth because CO in the proto-atmosphere may be photochemically converted to CO₂. However, CO₂ in the proto-atmosphere has decreased with time through the global carbon cycle which may have stabilized the terrestrial environment against an increase in the solar luminosity. The continental growth during Hadean and Archean would therefore have a significant influence on the carbon cycle and the surface temperature. It is also suggested that the continental growth is a necessary condition for the terrestrial environment to evolve to the present state. Both the impact degassing and the subsequent continuous degassing are suggested to have played a major role in the formation and evolution of the atmosphere and ocean. In particular, most of N₂ may have been produced by the impact degassing during accretion, and the contribution of the subsequent continuous degassing is at most 10% for N₂. As a consequence, after the CO₂ level decreased to less than 1 bar, the atmosphere may have been at about 1 bar and composed mainly of N₂ for most of the subsequent history of the Earth.     

月球的化学演化

月球是一个发生了化学分异的星球,它由月壳、月幔±一个小的金属月核组成。大量观察事实显示月球曾经有过岩浆洋,岩浆洋的结晶分异主导了月球的化学演化。目前主流观点认为,月球是在太阳系演化的早期,至少45亿年前,一个火星大小的星球,与即将完成原始吸积的地球胚胎发生偏心撞击,造成地球的熔融,形成岩浆洋,飞溅出来的物质迅速吸积形成绕地球运动的月球,并且在月球上形成了全球规模的岩浆洋,进而发生了结晶分异。,由于月球上没有海洋和板块俯冲,岩浆洋分异是其化学演化的主要途径。月球岩浆洋的80％～85％在大撞击后的100Ma内已经固化,这可能是由于月球体积小、表面没有大气包裹所致。月球极贫水,因此在岩浆结晶过程中斜长石首先结晶。斜长石由于密度小于玄武质岩浆而漂浮在岩浆洋的表层,橄榄石等密度大的矿物则堆积在岩浆洋的底部。随着结晶分异的进行,残余岩浆不断富集不相容元素,包括K、U等放射性元素;与此同时,密度较大的钛铁矿开始结晶,造成高钛堆晶岩密度大于其下的橄榄石堆晶岩的不稳定结构,进而发生月幔翻转,引发一系列岩浆活动,进而形成月球上特有的镁质系列、碱质系列等岩石。由于月球氧逸度较低,Eu主要以＋2价形式存在,因此斜长石高度富集Eu,相应地除高地斜长岩外,其他岩石均表现为Eu高度亏损的特点。与此同时,Re在低氧逸度下表现为强亲铁元素的特点,Re／Os在月球岩浆过程中不发生分异。月球的体积远小于地球,因而其演化时间远远短于地球,很多原始的分异被完整地保留下来。因此月球的化学演化是类地行星早期演化过程的“化石”,尽管与现代的地球存在较大差异,但是对于认识地球早期演化具有借鉴意义。     

Effects of volcanic eruptions on the CO2 content of the atmosphere and the oceans: the 1996 eruption and flood within the Vatnajökull Glacier, Iceland

The October 1996 eruption within the Vatnajökull Glacier, Iceland, provides a unique opportunity to study the net effect of volcanic eruptions on atmospheric and oceanic CO₂. Volatile elements dissolved in the meltwater that enclosed the eruption site were eventually discharged into the ocean in a dramatic flood 35 days after the beginning of the eruption, enabling measurement of 50 dissolved element fluxes. The minimum concentration of exsolved CO₂ in the 1×10¹² kg of erupted magma was 516 mg/kg, S was 98 mg/kg, Cl was 14 mg/kg, and F was 2 mg/kg. The pH of the meltwater at the eruption site ranged from about 3 to 8. Volatile and dissolved element release to the meltwater in less than 35 days amounted to more than one million tonnes, equal to 0.1% of the mass of erupted magma. The total dissolved solid concentration in the floodwater was close to 500 mg/kg, pH ranged from 6.88 to 7.95, and suspended solid concentration ranged from 1% to 10%. According to H, O, C and S isotopes, most of the water was meteoric whereas the C and S were of magmatic origin. Both C and S went through isotopic fractionation due to precipitation at the eruption site, creating “short cuts” in their global cycles. The dissolved fluxes of C, Ca, Na, Si, S and Mg were greatest ranging from 1.4×10¹⁰ to 1.4×10⁹ mol. The dissolved C flux equaled 0.6 million tonnes of CO₂. The heavy metals Ni, Mn, Cu, Pb and Zn were relatively mobile during condensation and water–rock interactions at the eruption site. About half of the measured total carbon flood flux from the 1996 Vatnajökull eruption will be added to the long-term CO₂ budget of the oceans and the atmosphere. The other half will eventually precipitate with the Ca and Mg released. Thus, for eruptions on the ocean floor, one can expect a net long-term C release to the ocean of less than half that of the exsolved gas. This is a considerably higher net C release than suggested for the oceanic crust by Staudigel et al. [Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 53 (1989) 3091]. In fact, they suggested a net loss of C. Therefore, magma degassed at the ocean floor contributes more C to the oceans and the atmosphere than magma degassed deep in the oceanic crust. The results of this study show that subglacial eruptions affecting the surface layer of the ocean where either Mn, Fe, Si or Cu are rate-determining for the growth of oceanic biomass have a potential for a transient net CO₂ removal from the ocean and the atmosphere. For eruptions at high latitudes, timing is crucial for the effect of oceanic biota. Eruptions occurring in the wintertime when light is rate-determining for the growth of biota have much less potential for bringing about a transient net negative CO₂ flux from the ocean atmosphere reservoir.     

The Paleoceanography during the Time with High δ13C of Phanerozoic marine carbonates

Carbon isotopic composition of marine carbonates is a record for various important geological events in the process of earth development and evolution. The carbonates of Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic, as the transition from Paleozoic to Mesozoic-Cenozoic have very high ¹³C value. Taking this as the main point, and combined with the oxygen, strontium isotopic composition in carbonates, distribution of carbonate basin area through geologic time, the correlation of carbon isotopic composition of marine carbonates to sea level change, organic carbon burial flux, exchange of CO₂ content in atmosphere and ocean, and long cycle evolution of the earth ecosystems were approached. The results are shown as follows: ①The interval of ¹³C >3‰ during Phanerozoic was concentrated in Carboniferous, Permian and the beginning of Triassic, but the beginning of Triassic was characterized by higher frequency and larger fluctuations in ¹³C value during a short time, whereas the Carboniferous-Permian presented a continuously stable high ¹³C value, indicating a larger amount of organic carbon accumulation in this time interval. Relatively high ¹⁸O values during this time was also observed, showing a long time of glaciations and cold climate, which suggest a connection among rapid organic carbon burial, cold climate, as well as pCO₂ and pO₂ states of atmosphere. ②The over consumption of atmosphere CO₂ by green plants during the time with high ¹³C of seawater forced CO₂ being transferred from ocean to atmosphere for the balance, but the decrease in the seawater amount and water column pressure caused by the global cooling could weaken dissolution capacity of CO₂ in seawater and carbon storage of marine carbonates, and also reduce the carbonate sedimentary rate and decrease the carbonate basin area globally from Devonian to Carboniferous and Permian. During the middle-late Permian carbonate was widely replaced by siliceous sediments even though in shallow carbonate platform, which resulted in the decrease of marine invertebrates, suggesting the Permian chert event should be global. ③The Phanerozoic ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr trend of seawater showed a sharp fall in Permian and drop to a minimum at the end of the Permian, indicting input of strontium from the submarine hydrothermal systems (mantle flux). Such process should accompany with a supplement of CO₂ from deep earth to atmosphere and ocean system, but the process associated with widespread volcanism and rises of earth’s surface temperature pricked up the mass extinction during the time of end Permian. ④Cold climate and increase of continental icecap volume, the amalgamation of northern Africa and Laurentia continentals were the main reasons responsible for the sea level drop, but the water consumption result from the significantly increased accumulation of organic carbon should also be one of the reasons for the sea level drop on the order of tens of meters. ⑤The mass extinction at the end Permian was an inevitable event in the process of earth system adjustment. It was difficult for marine invertebrates to survive because of the continuously rapid burial of organic carbon, and of the decrease of sea water amount and its dissolution ability to CO₂. At last, at the end of Paleozoic, the supplement of CO₂ to atmosphere and ocean by widely magma activities resulted in a high temperature of earth surface and intensified mass extinction.     

锆石Ce 氧逸度计和早期地球的氧化还原状态

氧逸度可以用于定量描述一个体系的氧化还原状态,是地球科学非常重要的一个热力学指标。早期地球的氧逸度及其变化趋势的重建,对大气圈、水圈、生物圈乃至整个地球的起源和演化具有重要的科学意义,也是地球科学长期探索的重要目标。锆石提供了地球上已发现的最古老天然样品,几乎是目前研究早期(冥古宙)地球的唯一可靠对象。近年来的研究发现,锆石中Ce的含量对其母岩浆体系的氧逸度很敏感,并由此发展出了锆石的Ce氧逸度计。这一技术对认识早期地球的氧化还原状态十分关键。文章对锆石Ce氧逸度计进行了简单介绍,进而对早期地壳和地幔的氧化还原状态进行了综合评述。在此基础上,对早期地球几个重要圈层(大气圈、大陆地壳和上地幔)氧逸度的演化及相互间的耦合关系进行了讨论。     

Carbon sources in arc volcanism, with implications for the carbon cycle

New CO₂/³ He data from the East Sunda Arc (Indonesia) confirm earlier observations that arc volcanic gases have higher CO₂/³ He ratios than MOR environments.On average, > 80% of arc volcanic CO₂ is recycled, exogene carbon. Addition of a few percent of carbonate-bearing sediments to the mantle wedge explains much of the carbon abundance andcarbon isotopic data of arc gases, but can not explain the He isotope observations. The CO₂/³He in arc volcanoes is not strongly dependent on the composition of modem trough sediments (e.g. deep sea clays vs carbonate-rich sequences), and calcite veins in the hydrothermally altered subducted slab may provide a contribution to the recycled carbon flux of, arcs. The sum of globally deep-subducted sediment and slab carbon exceeds the estimated arc CO₂ flux, and approximately 3.5 teramole of carbon may return annually to the mantle in convergent zones. The modem combined processes of MOR volcanism, slab alteration, and subduction volcanism do not produce a substantial carbon flux into the exosphere, and rate-changes in ocean floor spreading are unlikely to cause major changes in atmospheric CO₂ as a result of changes in the volcanic CO₂ fluxes. Intense pulses of flood basalt volcanism, however, may alter the CO₂ contents of the atmosphere over the course of a millenium or so, and influence global climate.     

水-岩作用对储层渗透性影响的数值模拟研究——以鄂尔多斯盆地东北部上古生界砂岩储层为例

油气储层的质量及演化往往受沉积作用和成岩作用的共同制约,成岩作用是影响储层孔渗最直接的因素,水-岩反应贯穿于整个成岩作用阶段,决定了孔渗的演化过程。本次研究以鄂尔多斯盆地东北部上古生界陆源碎屑岩储层下石盒子组-山西组为对象,运用多相流反应溶质运移数值模拟的方法,定量研究水-岩化学作用对含油气盆地储层渗透性能的影响,再现水-岩反应所造成的储层矿物溶解、沉淀以及储层渗透性的变化。结果表明：在成岩作用初期,矿物溶解过程占主导地位,模型运行50 Ma时,储层孔隙度由初始的0.30增至0.36,渗透率由初始的5.00×10^-15 m²增至8.70×10^-15 m²;在油气充注阶段（气体CO₂为主）,整个成岩作用矿物的沉淀量大于矿物的溶解量,导致固相体积增加,模型运行20 Ma时,储层孔隙度由0.20降低至约0.15,渗透率由5.00×10^-13 m²下降至约2.00×10^-13 m²。     

Archaean hydrothermal talc evidence for high ocean temperatures

Bedded sedimentary talc is abundant in Archaean greenstone belts in proximity to seafloor hydrothermal vents. Trace-element abundances and oxygen-isotope evidence suggest formation from heated ocean water. It is suggested that talc forms by reaction of silica in the hot discharge with metal bicarbonate species in ocean water thus releasing carbon dioxide. The possible CO₂ flux is similar to the present-day combustion flux and may have maintained a global greenhouse with warm oceans as reflected in the oxygen-isotope systematics of cherts. It seems probable that surface-Earth temperatures may have exceeded the boiling point prior to 4 Ga. If this is possible, then the beginning of the geologic record for the Earth may coincide with the first widespread development of the hydrosphere.     

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.07.005

The Hadean history of Earth is shrouded in mystery and it is considered that the planet was born dry with no water or atmosphere. The Earth-Moon system had many features in common during the birth stage. Solidification of the dry magma ocean at 4.53 Ga generated primordial continents with komatiite. We speculate that the upper crust was composed of fractionated gabbros and the middle felsic crust by anorthosite at ca. 21 km depth boundary, underlain by meta-anorthosite (grossular + kyanite + quartz) down to 50–60 km in depth. The thickness of the mafic KREEP basalt in the lower crust, separating it from the underlying upper mantle is not well-constrained and might have been up to ca. 100–200 km depending on the degree of fractionation and gravitational stability versus surrounding mantle density. The primordial continents must have been composed of the final residue of dry magma ocean and enriched in several critical elements including Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, P, K, and Cl which were exposed on the surface of the dry Earth. Around 190 million years after the solidification of the magma ocean, “ABEL bombardment” delivered volatiles including H₂O, CO₂, N₂ as well as silicate components through the addition of icy asteroids. This event continued for 200 Myr with subordinate bombardments until 3.9 Ga, preparing the Earth for the prebiotic chemical evolution and as the cradle of first life. Due to vigorous convection arising from high mantle potential temperatures, the primordial continents disintegrated and were dragged down to the deep mantle, marking the onset of Hadean plate tectonics.     

基于大孔径闪烁仪(LAS)测定农田显热通量的不确定性分析

显热通量是反映地-气间能量交换强度的重要指标.随着涡度相关(EC)技术的快速发展,点尺度的显热通量测量已经变得比较容易和准确可靠,像元尺度(公里尺度)的显热通量的地面测量成为连接遥感反演和地面验证尺度扩展的一个重要环节.大孔径闪烁仪(LAS)是目前唯一一种可直接用于像元尺度上显热通量测量的仪器.为了研究该仪器在使用过程的问题,比较了用2种方法同时在禹城农田上观测的显热通量,重点分析了两者之间产生误差或不确定性的原因.初步研究表明:①无论白天还是夜间,用大孔径闪烁仪(LAS)测量像元尺度上的显热通量是可行的,与涡度相关方法得到的结果总体相关性比较好,日变化趋势非常一致.②LAS与EC对比观测表明:白天显热通量较小时,HLAS比HEC偏大,白天显热通量较大时,HLAS比HEC小;当显热通量由小变大时,其平均绝对误差越来越大,相对误差越来越小.③由于下垫面的非均匀性,风速风向变化将会改变通量贡献区(footprint),从而造成2种结果出现偏差.另外,波文比、零平面位移和地表粗糙度等的不确定性都可能影响LAS的观测结果.     

玛曲高寒草甸夏季近地层微气象和CO2通量特征分析

利用2015年夏季玛曲高寒草甸观测资料,从中选取7月10个连续完整的观测日,分析了近地层气象要素、地表辐射和能量传输以及CO₂通量日变化特征。结果表明：夏季玛曲地区气温和比湿昼夜差异较大,最大温差为19.2 ℃,平均风速为2.7 m?s^-1,风向以东风为主。晴天条件下向下短波辐射可达1 200 W?m^-2左右,平均地表反照率为0.22,均大于藏北那曲地区。净辐射峰值可达850 W?m^-2左右,陆-气间能量传输以潜热输送为主。10 d能量闭合度平均值为0.61,能量不平衡程度较大。夏季玛曲高寒草甸表现为“碳汇”,CO₂通量平均值为-0.20 mg?m^-2?s^-1,晴天碳吸收最大速率为-14.05 mg?m^-2?s^-1,显著大于阴天,最大碳吸收时长为13 h,CO₂密度平均值为530.7 mg?m^-3。     

北京延庆地区南湾道豁子沟泥石流发育特征

以北京市延庆地区南湾道豁子泥石流沟为研究对象,通过野外泥石流沟精细调查及历史资料统计,详细了解该泥石流发育特征和形成条件,针对流域内松散堆积物补给条件进行重点分析;综合研究该泥石流的动力学特征,进行泥石流危险区预测评价,提出相应的防治措施建议。研究结果表明:该泥石流沟内松散堆积物动储量为18.47×10⁴ m³,分为冲洪积、残坡积、人工堆积和崩滑塌等4种补给来源,其中冲洪积和残坡积所占比重最大;泥石流发展阶段处于衰退期;经动力学分析,洪峰流量值在10年一遇的降雨条件下为52.53 m³/s,20年一遇的降雨条件下为59.25 m³/s,50年一遇的降雨条件下为68.13 m³/s,100年一遇的降雨条件下为74.85 m³/s,对应的一次固体冲出总量分别为0.77×10⁴ m³、0.87×10⁴ m³、1.00×10⁴ m³和1.10×10⁴ m³;属于中型泥石流,最大危险区面积为0.238 3 km²。通过评价分析,该泥石流沟仍存在爆发中型泥石流的可能性,将对下游南湾村以及千沙公路行车和行人的生命财产安全造成威胁。研究成果可为延庆地区该类泥石流单沟预警模型研究和灾害防治提供科学依据。     

西北地区某干旱河流设计情景下的年径流量预测分析

人类活动和气候变化对流域水文水资源的影响及由此所带来的社会、 经济和生态效应, 使得新疆精河流域出现了严重的水资源短缺和生态危机. 为此, 实施跨流域调水是解决艾比湖流域生态环境保护的必要措施, 精河上游支流是跨流域引入外水的唯一捷径河流. 根据前期研究计算的年径流量系列, 在经过论证的流域现状水平(C_v=0.12, C_s/C_v=2.00)的基础上, 采用水文频率分析方法, 设计并预测了流域规划的近期和远期目标情景下的年径流量情势. 结果显示: 为了使保证率p=75%, 近期目标要求流域的输水量为8.62×10⁸ m³, 远期目标为14.39×10⁸ m³. 跨流域调水可以满足流域多方面的实际用水需求.     

我国陆相中高熟页岩油富集条件与分布特征

我国相继在多个盆地陆相页岩油勘探中获得突破,展示了良好的发展前景。基于现阶段勘探认识,本文认为陆相页岩油富集主要条件是：(1)稳定且有规模和适宜热成熟度的富有机质页岩是重要物质基础,以TOC含量>2%,最佳为3%～4%、母质类型Ⅰ和Ⅱ₁型为主,R_o>0.9%或更高(咸化环境0.8%);(2)有一定容积规模的微纳米孔隙且具脆性的多类储层是重要条件,页岩储层有效孔隙度宜>3%～6%;成岩阶段偏低时,纯页岩段不是中高熟页岩油富集段,致密砂岩和混积岩黏土含量宜<20%;成岩阶段高时,页岩黏土含量可高至40%左右;(3)滞留烃数量大且品质好是重要保证,以S₁>2 mg/g为门限,最佳>4～6 mg/g;气油比>80 m³/m³,最佳150～300 m³/m³;(4)顶底板具封闭性保持超压且滞留足够多轻-中组分烃类。陆相页岩油分布特征是：(1)有外物质注入的深-半深湖相是页岩油主要富集区;(2)具备“四高...     

辽东三叠纪弟兄山岩体SHRIMP U-Pb年龄、地球化学特征及其地质意义

SHRIMP锆石U-Pb年龄测定表明,辽东半岛弟兄山岩体的侵位时代为三叠纪（205.2±2.1 Ma）,是华北东部三叠纪花岗岩的一部分.全岩岩石化学分析结果显示,弟兄山花岗岩具有高SiO₂、Al₂O₃、K₂O,低TiO₂、Na₂、MnO和CaO的特征,K₂O+Na₂变化范围为7.88%~9.28%,K₂O/Na₂ ≥ 1.16~1.46;CaO/Na₂=0.08~0.23,铝指数A/CNK=0.95~1.10,并且在矿物组合中出现白云母,属准铝-过铝质花岗岩.在SiO₂-Zr图解中,所有样品点均落在S型花岗岩区域中.以上特征均显示该花岗岩为准铝-过铝质S型花岗岩.稀土曲线和稀土参数表现出强烈的轻、重稀土分异特征和明显的Eu负异常特征,反映源区岩浆形成后发生过斜长石或其他富Ca矿物的分离结晶作用,是典型准铝-过铝质花岗岩的稀土元素特征.在原始地幔标准化的微量元素蛛网图上,所有花岗岩均富集Rb、Th,明显亏损Nb、Ta、Sr和Ti.所有样品的Rb=133×10^-6~360×10^-6,绝大多数样品高于花岗岩的平均值（200×10^-6）;Sr（25×10^-6~135×10^-6）和Ba（48×10^-6~507×10^-6）明显低于花岗岩的平均值（Sr 300×10^-6,Ba 830×10^-6）,Ba、Sr亏损反映岩浆经历了较为完全的分离结晶作用;大离子亲石元素Rb、Th富集,Nb和Ta亏损显示陆壳物质为岩浆的源岩.上述特征表明岩浆物质来源于陆源碎屑岩石.结合区域构造演化历史,认为弟兄山岩体是库拉-太平洋板块向欧亚大陆俯冲的产物,是印支晚期华北岩石圈处于弱伸展状态背景的响应.     

华北克拉通北缘显生宙四次底侵作用及其构造-岩浆活动与深部背景

通过对华北克拉通北缘显生宙四次(P₁,T₃,J₁,K₁)底侵作用的研究,将华北克拉通的活化与岩石圈深部地幔物质的底辟体上涌联系起来。不同阶段底侵作用在岩浆来源深度、与构造格局关系、对地壳垂向增生的贡献、幔源物质脉动式上涌等方面的差异与变化,显示它们是一个分阶段连续热演化的深部过程,其动力学机制是深部的高热流和地幔物质的向上运移。对应于地幔物质上涌,必然存在同期的地幔底辟体隆起的岩石圈结构变化。通过对华北中生代盆山系形成机制的讨论,认为该区高分辨率面波层析成像所显示的地幔底辟体上涌的特征可以反映中生代岩石圈底侵作用的深部背景。     

疏勒河上游多年冻土区植物生长季主要温室气体排放观测

选取青藏高原东北部疏勒河上游多年冻土区的高寒草甸样地为研究对象, 对2011年植物生长季(6-10月)主要温室气体(CO₂、 CH₄CH₄和CO₂)的排放进行了观测. 结果显示: 疏勒河上游多年冻土区高寒草甸地表CO₂、 CH₄和N₂O排放速率范围分别为7.58~418.60 mg·m^-2·h^-1, -0.20~0.14 mg·m^-2·h^-1和-27.22~39.98 μg·m^-2·h^-1. 0~10 cm土壤温度、 含水量和盐分与CO₂和CH₄排放速率显著相关, 但与N₂O排放速率无显著相关. 日均排放速率显示, CO₂和N₂O在整个观测期均表现为排放; CH₄在植物返青期和生长旺盛期表现为排放, 在枯黄期伴随表层土壤发生日冻融循环时为吸收. 从9月30日12:00-10月6日14:40, 表层0~10 cm土壤经历了3次日冻融循环, CO₂和N₂O日均排放速率分别由冻融前的60.73 mg·m^-2·h^-1和9.91 μg·m^-2·h^-1提高到122.33 mg·m^-2·h^-1和11.70 μg·m^-2·h^-1. 土壤温度、 含水量和盐分是影响CO₂和CH₄排放的重要因子, 表层土壤冻融交替作用可提高地表CO₂和N₂O的排放速率.     

基于HEC-RAS及GIS的川西叠溪古滑坡堰塞湖溃决洪水重建

青藏高原东南缘岷江上游地区地质环境条件十分复杂,滑坡堵江灾害及堰塞湖溃决事件频发,重建其灾害演化过程对于地区性防灾减灾和风险控制具有重要指导意义。以川西岷江上游叠溪古滑坡堰塞湖为研究对象,首先利用高精度DEM和ArcGIS软件重建了叠溪古堰塞湖的原始规模,其原始最大湖水面积为1.1×10⁷ m²,相应的湖容量为2.9×10⁹ m³;然后采用经验公式法和HEC-RAS一维水力学模型重建叠溪古堰塞湖溃决洪水的水力学特征。计算结果表明,HEC-RAS模拟的最大溃决洪水洪峰流量为73 060 m³/s,与经验公式法计算结果(74 500~76 800 m³/s,平均值76 000 m³/s)非常接近,误差小于5%。对应的最大洪水深度和流速分别为70.1 m和16.78 m/s,模拟河段的洪水淹没范围约为6.08 km²。综合误差分析推测的溃决洪峰流量误差范围为69 000~81 000 m³/s。叠溪古滑坡堰塞湖溃决洪水在世界范围内是十分罕见的,其最直接的影响是在下游数公里范围的河谷内形成大量带状或台阶状的溃坝堆积体和巨砾石堆积“阶地”,且这种影响仍延续至今,这与前人关于高能洪水水文特征和沉积特征的研究认识高度一致,证明本研究成果是非常可靠的。此外,本研究还表明,HEC-RAS一维水力模型可用于高山峡谷地区古滑坡堰塞湖溃决洪水重建研究,可为青藏高原东南缘岷江上游古环境重建和地貌演化提供参考。     

Lava worlds: From early earth to exoplanets

The magma ocean concept was first conceived to explain the geology of the Moon, but hemispherical or global oceans of silicate melt could be a widespread “lava world” phase of rocky planet accretion, and could persist on planets on short-period orbits around other stars. The formation and crystallization of magma oceans could be a defining stage in the assembly of a core, origin of a crust, initiation of tectonics, and formation of an atmosphere. The last decade has seen significant advances in our understanding of this phenomenon through analysis of terrestrial and extraterrestrial samples, planetary missions, and astronomical observations of exoplanets. This review describes the energetic basis of magma oceans and lava worlds and the lava lake analogs available for study on Earth and Io. It provides an overview of evidence for magma oceans throughout the Solar System and considers the factors that control the rocks these magma oceans leave behind. It describes research on theoretical and observed exoplanets that could host extant magma oceans and summarizes efforts to detect and characterize them. It reviews modeling of the evolution of magma oceans as a result of crystallization and evaporation, the interaction with the underlying solid mantle, and the effects of planetary rotation. The review also considers theoretical investigations on the formation of an atmosphere in concert with the magma ocean and in response to irradiation from the host star, and possible end-states. Finally, it describes needs and gaps in our knowledge and points to future opportunities with new planetary missions and space telescopes to identify and better characterize lava worlds around nearby stars.     

稀有金属矿物溶解度对花岗伟晶岩成矿作用的制约

花岗伟晶岩型矿床是稀有金属矿床重要的类型之一。在花岗伟晶岩中,稀有金属元素Li、Be、Nb和Ta主要以独立矿物的形式存在,前人对稀有金属独立矿物在硅酸盐熔体中的溶解度及其影响因素展开了系统研究。本文综合分析了已有的实验数据,其结果表明,影响稀有金属独立矿物溶解度最为重要的2个参数是温度(T)和铝饱和指数(ASI)。因此本文建立了稀有金属独立矿物,尤其是铌锰矿和钽锰矿溶解度,与温度(T)和铝饱和指数(ASI)之间的定量关系: lg [w(Li)/10^-6]=-0.37×[1 000/(T/K)]+4.56,R²=0.44 lg [w(BeO)/10^-6]=-4.21×[1 000/(T/K)]+6.86,R²=0.91 lg [K_sp(Nb)/(mg²·kg^-2)]=-(2.86±0.14)×ASI_(Mn+Li)-(4.95±0.31)×[1 000/(T/K)]+(4.20+0.28),R²=0.86 lg [K_sp(Ta)/(mg²·kg^-2)]=-(2.46±0.11)×ASI_(Mn+Li)-(4.86±0.30)×[1 000/(T/K)]+(4.00+0.30),R²=0.80 式中,温度T为热力学温度,ASI_(Mn+Li)(ASI=Al₂O₃/(CaO+Na₂O+K₂O+Li₂O+MnO),摩尔分数比)和T的适用范围分别为0.6~1.2和1 073~1 373 K的范围内。上述公式为估算硅酸盐熔体中稀有金属含量提供了便利,为量化花岗伟晶岩成矿模型提供了基础。 稀有金属独立矿物溶解度随温度降低和铝饱和指数的增加而急剧降低,因此,在岩浆演化过程中,由岩浆侵位、分离结晶以及流体作用等因素引起的岩浆温度降低和铝饱和指数的增加,是导致稀有金属独立矿物结晶的主要机制。