The First Solar Seeing Profile Measurement with Two Apertures and Multiple Guide Regions

The sky brightness is a critical parameter for estimating the coronal observation conditions for a solar observatory. As part of a site-survey project in Western China, we measured the sky brightness continuously at the Lijiang Observatory in Yunnan province in 2011. A sky brightness monitor (SBM) was adopted to measure the sky brightness in a region extending from 4.5 to 7.0 apparent solar radii based on the experience of the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) site survey. Every month, the data were collected manually for at least one week. We collected statistics of the sky brightness at four bandpasses located at 450, 530, 890, and 940 nm. The results indicate that aerosol scattering is of great importance for the diurnal variation of the sky brightness. For most of the year, the sky brightness remains under 20 millionths per airmass before local Noon. On average, the sky brightness is less than 20 millionths, which accounts for 40.41% of the total observing time on a clear day. The best observation time is from 9:00 to 13:00 (Beijing time). The Lijiang Observatory is therefore suitable for coronagraphs investigating the structures and dynamics of the corona.     

Light pollution and night sky brightness at the site of Kottamia Observatory

Photoelectric measurements of the night sky brightness and the light pollution of Kottamia Observatory have been carried out and the deduced results are expressed in mag/sec². The maximum brightness of the sky in the direction of Cairo city at zenith distance 45° and azimuth 70° when the sun is almost 60° below the horizon are 22.68; 21.54 and 19.82 mag/sec² for blue, yellow and red colours respectively. The corresponding values of night sky background are 22.94; 21.85 and 20.14 mag/sec² respectively.The isophotes of the sky brightness at Kottamia Observatory have been drawn for blue, yellow and red colours. The variations of the night sky brightness and the (B-V) colour index with altitude of the observed point have been studied.The light pollution and the night sky brightness at the site of Kottamia Observatory is compared with that deduced by different investigators at other sites. It has been shown that the sky brightness at zenith distance 45° at Kottamia Observatory site is similar to Kitt Peak and Palomar Observatory sites. Kottamia Observatory site is slightly brighter than Junipero Serra while it is darker than Mount Hamilton and San Jose sites. The comparative results have been carried out at blue and yellow colours. No comparison is obtained at red as there is no data published for the red colour.     

Night Sky Brightness and Colour at Different Zenith Distances at Abu-Simbel Site

Photoelectric observations of night sky brightness at different zenith distances in blue, yellow and red colours have been carried out at Abu-Simbel site. Variations in the night sky brightness and (B-V) colour index with time are detected. These variations have been explained by the change of the galactic latitude of the observed point with time. The deduced results of night sky brightness have been compared with that obtained before at other sites. It has been found for both blue and yellow colours, that Abu-Simbel is the darkest site especially for zenith distances equal or greater than 60°. The present values of night sky brightness and colour have been obtained for the first time at Abu-Simbel site. The average night sky brightness at the galactic plane is 22.58 mag/arc sec² for blue and 21.66 mag/arc sec² for yellow. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Sky Brightness Measurements at Haleakala, 1955–2002

Measurements of the brightness of the clear daytime sky at Haleakala, Maui are presented for the interval 1955 through 2002. The observations are made near the direction of the Sun, where forward scattering off aerosols dominates the sky brightness. The Haleakala summit at 3054 m is normally above the inversion layer. The Haleakala sky is dark; the observed brightness per airmass has a median of 10 millionths of the solar disk and a mode of 5 millionths, with Rayleigh scattering contributing 1 millionth. There is no demonstrable long-term trend in the data.     

A daytime measurement of the lunar contribution to the night sky brightness in LSST’s <Emphasis Type="Italic">ugrizy</Emphasis> bands–initial results

We report measurements from which we determine the spatial structure of the lunar contribution to night sky brightness, taken at the LSST site on Cerro Pachon in Chile. We use an array of six photodiodes with filters that approximate the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope’s u, g, r, i, z, and y bands. We use the sun as a proxy for the moon, and measure sky brightness as a function of zenith angle of the point on sky, zenith angle of the sun, and angular distance between the sun and the point on sky. We make a correction for the difference between the illumination spectrum of the sun and the moon. Since scattered sunlight totally dominates the daytime sky brightness, this technique allows us to cleanly determine the contribution to the (cloudless) night sky from backscattered moonlight, without contamination from other sources of night sky brightness. We estimate our uncertainty in the relative lunar night sky brightness vs. zenith and lunar angle to be between 0.3–0.7 mags depending on the passband. This information is useful in planning the optimal execution of the LSST survey, and perhaps for other astronomical observations as well. Although our primary objective is to map out the angular structure and spectrum of the scattered light from the atmosphere and particulates, we also make an estimate of the expected number of scattered lunar photons per pixel per second in LSST, and find values that are in overall agreement with previous estimates.     

Variation of Spectral Radiance of the Zenith Sky During the Annular Eclipse on May 21, 2012

The absolute brightness of the zenith sky was measured using a simple calibrated spectrometer during the annular solar eclipse event on May 21, 2012 in Fujioka City, Japan (36.2924°N, 139.0823°E). The sensitivity of the spectrometer was calibrated as a function of wavelength between 400 and 700 nm with an integral sphere. The brightness of the sky decreased to 6 % of its usual condition at the maximum magnitude of the annular eclipse of 0.95 for all wavelengths. The curve describing the variation of sky brightness accords well with the total luminosity of the solar disk estimated by a simple model that accounts for the limb darkening effect. This study provides zenith sky radiance as a function of wavelength and solar elevation angle, which is useful for the investigation of new optical instruments for atmospheric studies.     

The artificial night sky brightness mapped from DMSP satellite Operational Linescan System measurements

We present a method to map the artificial sky brightness across large territories in astronomical photometric bands with a resolution of approximately 1 km. This is of use in quantifying the situation regarding night sky pollution, recognizing potential astronomical sites and allowing future monitoring of trends. The artificial sky brightness present in the chosen direction at a given position on the surface of the Earth is obtained by the integration of the contributions produced by every surface area in the surroundings . Each contribution is computed via detailed models for the propagation in the atmosphere of the upward light flux emitted by the area. The light flux is measured with top-of-atmosphere radiometric observations made by the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational Linescan System.
We have applied the described method to Europe, obtaining maps of artificial sky brightness in the V and B bands.     

Using a New Sky Brightness Monitor to Observe the Annular Solar Eclipse on 15 January 2010

For the future development of Chinese Giant Solar Telescope (CGST) in Western China, a new sky brightness monitor (SBM) has been produced for the site survey for CGST. To critically examine the performance and sensitivity of SBM, we used it in the observation of the annular solar eclipse in Dali City, Yunnan, on 15 January 2010. The observation met good weather conditions with an almost clear sky during the eclipse. The SBM measurement translates into the solar illuminance changes at a level of 2.4×10^?4 I?s^?1 during the eclipse. The time of the minimal sky brightness in the field of view (FOV) is found consistent with the time of maximum eclipse. Two local sky regions in the FOV are chosen to make a time series of the calibrated skylight profiles. The evolution of the sky brightness thus calibrated also shows good consistency with the eclipse, particularly between the second and the third contacts. The minimal sky brightness in each local sky region took place within half a minute from the corresponding predicted contact time. Such small time delays were mainly caused by occasional cirri. The minimal sky brightness measured during the eclipse is a few millionths of I _?? with standard deviation of 0.11 millionths of I _??. The observation supports that the single-scattering process (optically thin conditions) is the main contributor to the atmospheric scattering. We have demonstrated that many important aerosol optical parameters can be deduced from our data. We conclude that the new SBM is a sensitive sky photometer that can be used for our CGST and coronagraph site surveys.     

上海天文台佘山工作站夜天亮度的变化

使用1994—2007年在1．56m反射望远镜CCD照相机拍摄的资料，测定了上海天文台余山工作站夜天亮度的变化。由于上海城市的发展，佘山工作站的夜天亮度在V波段从每平方角秒约19mag变到15．8mag，也就是说，夜天亮度自1994年以来变亮了约20倍。国际上优良台站的夜天亮度在V波段等于或暗于21．5mag。上述夜天亮度是优良台站的200多倍。现在在佘山工作站使用1．56m反射望远镜对暗于V=14mag的星做精确测光已经很困难了。     

现代日晕光度计多波段测光系统初步测试结果分析

现代日晕光度计是用于精确测定监测址点的多种大气参量的精密仪器,它已列为我国西部太阳设备选址工作中的重要设备。利用同一架日晕光度计首先对昭通大山包进行了多波段数据采集。在仔细分析初步测光结果的基础上,进一步完善日晕光度计的光学系统。使用改进后的设备对昆明凤凰山址点进行了多次数据采集,都获得了理想数据。这表明日晕光度计的多波段测光系统已能够用于西部太阳选址工作中。     

Night Sky Brightness and Atmospheric Extinction at Kottamia Observatory Site

Photoelectric measurements have been carried out at Kottamia Observatory site to study night sky brightness and the atmospheric extinction at different wavelengths. The results show that the mean extinction coefficients are k = 0.41, k = 0.28< and k = 0.17 mag/air mass during autumn season. These values are almost the same as that obtained by Mikhail (1979) at the same site during the same season. Results of night sky brightness at different altitudes above the horizon have been obtained. Complete scan each five degrees step in azimuth have been done at altitudes 50°, 60° and 70° to complete the previous measurements given by Nawar et al. (1995). Far from the diffuse galactic light, slight variations in night sky brightness with azimuth have been detected. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Sky twilight brightness and colour during high solar activity

With a sensitive photoelectric photometer, observations of the sky twilight brightness have been carried out at different positions in the sky during high solar activity period. The measurements have been obtained using blue and red wide band glass filters centered at 4410 and 7900 Å, respectively. The variation of the (B-R) colour index of the sky twilight with Sun's depression have been investigated at different altitudes in the sky above the horizon and various bearing angles from the solar vertical.     

日晕测量与日晕光度计外缘杂散光抑制试验

为配合大型太阳设备西部选址工作,研制了一架现代日晕光度计(Sky Brightness Monitor,SBM).前期实验对日晕光度计性能进行了测试,同时积累了云南部分址点的日晕数据.资料分析结果显示,轿子雪山正午前后的日晕水平最低可至日面中心强度百万分之几的量级(蓝波段).这表明该日晕光度计内部杂散光水平已达到了国际同类产品的标准.日晕光度计的内部杂散光源主要来自两部分:镜筒前端中性滤光片(ND4)固定套圈的边缘衍射(视场靠内区域)和镜筒内置光阑的边缘衍射(视场靠外区域).针对后者进行的变换光阑孔径大小试验结果证实,适当缩小光阑孔径可有效减小数据中视场靠外区域的衍射光干扰.     

Variation of evening Zenith sky twilight brightness and colour at Abu-Simbel during spring

Photoelectric zenith sky twilight brightness measurements have been carried out at Abu-Simbel site during spring season 1980 using blue, yellow and red filters. The results are reduced to deduce for the site the variation of the zenith sky twilight brightness in absolute units with sun's depression. The colour indices variation (B - V) and (B - R) with sun's depression are deduced from these results. Comparison is carried out between the present result and that deduced at Helwan and Daraw.     

Photoelectric study of the sky brightness along Sun’s meridian during the March 29, 2006 solar eclipse

Photoelectric observations of the sky brightness along Sun’s meridian have been carried out at Salloum during the March 29, 2006 total solar eclipse. The measurements have been taken at different zenith distances along the Sun’s meridian using yellow and red wide band glass filters centered at 5500 Å and 7900 Å, respectively. The present results of the sky brightness during the total solar eclipse have been compared with that of twilight, and night sky obtained by the same instrument at Abu-Simbel and Kottamia observatory sites respectively. The variation of V–R color index with zenith distance have been also studied. The visibility of planets and stars during the March 29, 2006 total solar eclipse is given.     

Using Laser Beacons for Daytime Adaptive Optics

This article examines the use of Laser Beacons for daytime astronomical observations. There are two potential applications: the diffraction limited observation of (1) the structure in the solar corona at all wavelengths, and (2) non-solar astronomical objects in the thermal infrared part of the spectrum. We examine the brightness of the Laser Beacon required as well as the limitations imposed by the daytime sky brightness and sky/telescope thermal emission on the observable magnitude limits. For both applications the use of Laser Beacon adaptive optics in daytime results in important research opportunities.     

Improving the crescent visibility limits due to factors causing decrease in the sky twilight brightness

The measured sky twilight brightness of a site is believed to be connected with main factors such as geographical latitude, elevation of the site above sea level, the season of observations and the aerosol pollution. These factors may decrease the sky twilight brightness and thus improve the crescent visibility limits. The effect of these factors on the visibility conditions to see the new Moon are investigated in the present work. The results show that the visibility conditions has improved at sites situated at higher northern geographical latitudes and higher elevation above sea level. The conditions to see the new Moon in winter season is better than the summer season. The aerosol pollution has a great effect on the visibility of the new Moon at sun's depression 5°, while for sun's depression greater than 5° the aerosol pollution has a small effect.     

Preparing for the 1998/99 Leonid Storms

In order to further observing programs aimed at the possible meteor storms of November 1998 and 1999, we describe here how the Leonid shower is expected to manifest itself on the sky. We discuss: 1) the expected wavelength dependence of meteor (train) emission, 2) the meteor brightness distribution and influx, 3) the stream cross section, radiant and altitude of the meteors, 4) the apparent fluxes at various positions in the sky as a function of radiant elevation as well as 5) the trail length and radial velocity, and 6) the diameter and brightness of persistent trains as a function of radiant elevation. These topics were chosen to help researchers plan an observing strategy for imaging, spectroscopy, and LIDAR observations. Some applications are discussed. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The first World Atlas of the artificial night sky brightness

We present the first World Atlas of the zenith artificial night sky brightness at sea level. Based on radiance-calibrated high-resolution DMSP satellite data and on accurate modelling of light propagation in the atmosphere, it provides a nearly global picture of how mankind is proceeding to envelop itself in a luminous fog. Comparing the Atlas with the United States Department of Energy (DOE) population density data base, we determined the fraction of population who are living under a sky of given brightness. About two-thirds of the World population and 99 per cent of the population in the United States (excluding Alaska and Hawaii) and European Union live in areas where the night sky is above the threshold set for polluted status. Assuming average eye functionality, about one-fifth of the World population, more than two-thirds of the United States population and more than one half of the European Union population have already lost naked eye visibility of the Milky Way. Finally, about one-tenth of the World population, more than 40 per cent of the United States population and one sixth of the European Union population no longer view the heavens with the eye adapted to night vision, because of the sky brightness.     

Visibility of the new Moon at two sites I: Maryland situated at northern geographical latitude. II: Sacramento peak situated at high altitude above sea level

The optimum conditions to see the crescent of the new Moon have been obtained at Sacramento Peak and Maryland. We have used the data of the sky twilight brightness given by Koomenet al. (1952) for the two sites. The results show that the crescent can not be seen at the two sites for sun's depression less than 4° and 8° elongation between Sun, Moon and Earth confirming the results obtained before by Asaadet al. (1976). The visibility conditions at Maryland and Sacramento Peak are better than that obtained before for the three sites Misallat, Helwan and Daraw at Egypt. The reason is mainly due to the decrease in the sky twilight brightness at sites having higher geographical northern latitudes and high elevation above sea level.