Phreatic cave calcites – archives of two realms

Two main types of karst formation are commonly known: the surficial meteoric one and the subsurface (hypogenic) karst, related to both carbonic (H₂CO₃) and sulphuric (H₂S) acids. Nevertheless, a third, less well studied type exists that is referred to here as CO₂-regime related karst. This article describes Pleistocene phreatic cave spar from the diapiric Jabal Madar dome in Northern Oman. These caverns and their precipitates probably represent examples of CO₂-related karsting and subsequent calcite precipitation. Phreatic calcites form at the interface between two fundamentally different diagenetic and hydrogeological domains: the deep-seated, hydrothermal and the near-surficial, meteoric–vadose one. Changes in the ratio between hydrothermal upwelling and meteoric influx are recorded in the geochemistry and mineralogy of these calcites making them uncommon archives of two contrasting realms.     

全充型复活溶洞—宜兴慕蠡洞洞穴发育特征

慕蠡洞洞穴是继宜兴善卷洞，张公洞，灵谷洞之后开发的又一个旅游洞穴，从该洞的洞穴发育分区，形成原因，岩溶现象以及溶洞堆积物质及其环境变化等特征分析，该洞为堆积物充填后重新活动的一个全充型复活溶洞（指全部被堆积物充填以后重新活动的溶洞），对它的研究不仅丰富和充实了洞穴学的内容，而且为这类溶洞地区寻找岩溶地下水具有重要的实际意义。     

基于岩溶洞穴旅游活动中洞穴环境因子的研究

随着人们生活水平的不断提高,岩溶洞穴旅游活动日益频繁,使得对洞穴环境的综合研究以及洞穴旅游管理变得尤为重要。通过调研国内外岩溶洞穴旅游管理的现状,结合岩溶洞穴环境的研究成果,综合分析岩溶洞穴环境因子,如温度、相对湿度、洞穴CO2浓度等,对岩溶景观的影响,探讨溶洞环境的自净能力以及景观保护与修复措施等问题;针对目前岩溶洞穴旅游开发的有限空间与无序客流的矛盾,提出了合理调控洞穴旅游客流量,增强洞穴旅游景观资源保护意识,从地学、旅游、环境以及健康等角度评估和开发洞穴,使旅游活动对环境因子的影响限制在可控范围,实现洞穴旅游的可持续发展。      

山东半岛九天洞洞穴环境变化特征与影响因素

选取旅游洞穴九天洞为研究对象,对洞穴环境变化特征及影响因素进行分析,探讨旅游活动和外界环境变化对洞穴环境变化的影响,以期能够为旅游洞穴的保护与合理开发提供科学依据。结果表明:（1）九天洞受外界气温变化的影响呈夏季高冬季低的特征,且洞穴温度略高于当地平均温度,这与洞穴通风、旅游活动、监测时间等因素有关;（2）洞内相对湿度与洞内空气温度呈较好的负相关关系,洞内相对湿度的变化主要受控于温度,呈夏季低冬季高的变化特征;（3）九天洞CO2浓度的季节变化特征为夏秋季高冬季低,与气候变化导致的植被和微生物活动以及滴水速率的变化有关;（4）距洞口越远的监测点空气温度、相对湿度的变化幅度越小,CO2浓度越高,说明距洞口越远受洞外气候变化以及洞穴通风的影响越小;（5）九天洞各监测点pH值和电导率主要与外界气候变化有关,对气候变化响应敏感,在降水偏少的干旱年,监测点pH值偏高,电导率偏低。      

溶洞型储层成像分辨率分析

结合塔河油田溶洞型储层的特点,通过大量的数值模拟,分析了溶洞绕射波的波场特征,深入探讨了溶洞成像纵向、横向分辨率的本质,定量分析了信噪比对溶洞成像分辨率的影响,并给出了图像分辨率的概念及意义。研究表明:①溶洞的绕射波尾巴长,要选取较大的偏移孔径才能使绕射波能量得到较好的收敛;②溶洞较小时串珠远大于溶洞真实大小,随溶洞尺度增大串珠逐渐接近于溶洞真实大小;③纵向上不同高度的溶洞,如果连续地排在一起,实际上类似于一楔形体,其振幅变化呈调谐曲线;④传统的菲涅耳带半径不宜作为成像横向分辨率的评价参数,溶洞横向、纵向分辨率以λ大小为宜;⑤成像信噪比的改善趋势与炮集信噪比成反比,低信噪比资料成像处理后,溶洞的可识别度能得到明显提高;⑥要重视计算机图像分辨率的概念,注意高密度勘探最佳道距的合理选取。     

桂林凉风洞洞穴系统垂向碳迁移特征及其影响因素

2017年11月至2018年11月,以桂林毛村凉风洞为研究对象,进行大气环境和洞穴环境野外监测,同时在洞穴上覆土壤30 cm和60 cm处开展试片溶蚀实验,并在洞穴内部进行试片溶蚀和滴水脱气监测,以测定垂向碳迁移主要过程中的CO2浓度和δ13C-CO2值。结果表明:（1）“大气—土壤—洞穴”垂向碳迁移系统能够与洞穴通风一起影响洞穴系统内部的CO2分布模式。洞口通风方向的转变取决于洞内温度与外界温度的差异,少雨的11月中旬到次年3月初通风方向为从洞外到洞内,此时垂向碳迁移能力弱,洞内CO2的分布由洞口通风主导;3月初至9月中旬,洞内外温差逐渐过渡并反转,洞口通风方向为从内向外,且降雨强度大,垂向碳迁移活跃并主导洞内CO2分布;（2）岩溶关键带土壤呼吸的强度决定了垂向碳迁移系统可迁移的碳量,洞内CO2分布的季节性变异本质上是外界环境在垂向碳迁移系统和洞穴模式上的响应;（3）洞穴上覆碳酸盐岩土下溶蚀实验表明土下溶蚀可削弱土壤碳源作用。土壤30 cm和60 cm处碳酸盐岩溶蚀速率分别为:0.48 mol?m-2?a-1和0.96 mol?m-2?a-1,而洞穴第一洞厅监测点的碳酸盐岩脱气速率为49.35 mol?m-2?a-1、第二洞厅内为9.07 mol?m-2?a-1,由垂向碳迁移系统运移到洞穴内部的溶解了土壤CO2的滴水脱气作用显著。      

喀斯特洞穴旅游研究综述

自20世纪80年代以来,国内外对喀斯特洞穴的研究主要集中在洞穴景观形成机理、洞穴景观旅游价值评价、旅游洞穴类型划分、旅游活动对喀斯特洞穴环境影响、喀斯特洞穴景观保护等方面,并主要取得了几个重要认识: ( 1)喀斯特洞穴的发育以溶蚀作用为基础,但也存在着机械侵蚀、生物侵蚀、空气与气蚀以及各种沉积作用。( 2)按照洞穴成因,洞穴可分为渗流带洞穴、地下水位洞穴、潜流带洞穴和深潜流带洞穴,以及一些特殊成因的洞穴。( 3)对喀斯特洞穴旅游价值的评价可采用定性与定量相结合的方法进行,定性评价考虑的主要因素有区位、知名度、规模、景观的丰度、价值和功能、容量等; 定量评价则多采用层次分析法和模糊数学模型。( 4)旅游活动对洞内环境有很大的影响,洞穴温度、CO2 含量与客流量呈正相关关系; 灯光植物滋生主要源自洞穴灯光照明、游客带进的孢子及细菌。( 5)实行游客分批进入制,将有利于保护洞穴环境和保育洞穴景观。( 6)实行区域旅游组合开发、增加喀斯特洞穴型旅游目的地的旅游产品、加大景区保护力度与市场营销力度、加强从业人员培训等,可延长喀斯特洞穴旅游地的生命周期。已有研究大多从地学和旅游学的角度入手,且偏重于开发和评价方面。今后,应加强现代技术在洞穴旅游开发中的应用、洞穴旅游的管理、洞穴医疗旅游、洞穴旅游环境容量量测、洞穴旅游形象塑造和洞穴旅游开发时序等方面的研究。      

The conservation of Britain's limestone cave resource

 Limestone caves are an important scientific and recreational resource in Britain. During the mid- to late 1970s, cavers and statutory conservation bodies cooperated in a review of cave resources which resulted in the designation of 48 caves or cave areas as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). During the same period, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 was introduced to provide more effective planning controls on activities such as agriculture carried out within SSSI boundaries. In one case, at Priddy in the Mendip Hills of Somerset, landowners prevented access to a number of caves in protest over the new, tougher restrictions on agriculture. Faced with the closure, and perceiving that their recreational use of caves might also be controlled, local cavers joined the landowners in opposing the proposals for SSSI designation. As a result the proposals were reviewed, three caves were excluded from the site and controls on the remaining area were relaxed. The case emphasized a need for an effective system to take account of all factors affecting cave conservation, a need which has led to a more constructive dialogue between nature conservation bodies, caver organizations and other interested parties. Received: 1 June 1995 · Accepted: 4 December 1995     

Source and genesis of sulphate and phosphate–sulphate minerals in a quartz‐sandstone cave environment

Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O), alunite (KAl₃(SO₄)₂(OH)₆), and rare phosphate–sulphate sanjuanite Al₂(PO₄)(SO₄)(OH) 9(H₂O) and rossiantonite (Al₃(PO₄)(SO₄) 2(OH)₂(H₂O)₁₄) have recently been identified as secondary mineral deposits in different quartz‐sandstone caves in the Gran Sabana region, Venezuela. Due to the extended time scale required for speleogenesis in the hard and barely soluble quartz‐sandstone lithology, these caves are considered to be as old as 20 to 30 My. The study of these peculiar secondary mineral deposits potentially reveals important insights for understanding the interaction between deep, superficial and atmospheric processes over thousands to perhaps millions of years. In this study, chemical and petrographic analyses of potential host rock sources, sulphur and oxygen isotope ratios, and meteorological, hydrological and geographical data are used to investigate the origin of sulphates and phospho–sulphates. The results suggest that the deposition of sulphates in these caves is not linked to the quartz‐sandstone host rock. Rather, these mineral deposits originate from an external atmospheric sulphate source, with potential contributions of marine non‐sea salt sulphates, terrestrial dimethyl sulphide and microbially reduced H₂S from the forests or peatbogs within the watershed. Air currents within the caves are the most plausible means of transport for aerosols, driving the accumulation of sulphates and other secondary minerals in specific locations. Moreover, the studied sulphate minerals often co‐occur with silica speleothems of biological origin. Although this association would suggest a possible biogenic origin for the sulphates as well, direct evidence proving that microbes are involved in their formation is absent. Nonetheless, this study demonstrates that these quartz‐sandstone caves accumulate and preserve allogenic sulphates, playing a yet unrecognized role in the sulphur cycle of tropical environments.     

岩溶洞穴古河漫滩沉积物特征及其沉积环境演变——以山王洞中段为例

为揭示岩溶洞穴沉积物对沉积环境与沉积过程的指示作用,文章在分析双河洞洞系形成过程及山王洞区域地质调查资料的基础上,选取贵州山王洞中段古河漫滩沉积物为研究对象,采用粒度分析法与萨胡公式对洞穴沉积物粒度特征与沉积环境的相关性进行分析,推断不同沉积韵律期的沉积环境演变过程,研究结果表明:（1）古河漫滩表层沉积物以极细砂、粉砂和黏土为主,平均含量达94.42%,且中上部含有一层粗砂砾夹层;（2）沉积模式主要为跳跃和悬浮沉积,水动力条件整体稳定,搬运颗粒粒径平均值为637 μm,其最大沉积物颗粒粒径为864.2 μm;（3）以沉积物粒度特征为依据,将古河漫滩沉积过程划分为三级沉积韵律,一级沉积韵律厚度为404～275 cm ,二级沉积韵律厚度为285～165 cm,三级沉积韵律厚度为165～0 cm。上述研究为确定区域侵蚀基准面和地层升降运动过程提供有力证明,也为山王洞古气候环境研究提供了重要依据。      

Quaternary cave levels in peninsular Florida

The hypothesis that caves in the Florida Peninsula are tied to Quaternary sea levels was proposed by hydrogeologists, without data, some 40 years ago. The hypothesis is a version of glacial control of cave levels, which is the logical combination of the water-table theory of speleogenesis and the concept that base level positions the water table. At the USA type example of glacial control of cave levels—Mammoth Cave in the Paleozoic rocks of Kentucky—the intermediary is base level determined by rivers. By hypothesis, the intermediary for Florida is glacioeustatic sea level. This paper presents elevation data that supports this hypothesis.Recent cave surveys in the air-filled caves and spot elevations from archived maps reveal prominent levels of passages centered at 5, 12, 21, and 30 m above sea level over broad areas. They do not follow the large-scale structure of the Floridan aquifer. Instead, they align with nearby, coastal marine terraces identified as modal peaks on frequency plots from various topographic data bases. Levels matching with the three highest terraces—Wicomico, Penholoway, and Talbott—are particularly clear. Lower levels, if they accord with sea-level stands, are likely composites.Data from cavities encountered in drilled wells (e.g., bit drops) and spot elevations from archived underwater cave maps demonstrate passage levels at depths of 15, 30, 70, and 90–120 m below the modern water table. The depths below water table are similar to the depths below sea level of distant submerged terraces and paleoshoreline features identified using multibeam bathymetric data in the Gulf of Mexico.The cave, bit-drop, and terrace data are all consistent with the concept that Quaternary sea level is the fundamental control on the cave-scale porosity within the Floridan aquifer. This conclusion does not rule out the possibility that lithologically favored positions, paleokarst features and confining units, and mixing zones are also involved in the location of caves levels in this near-coastal environment.     

北京石花洞“石花”的晶体结构、矿物组成及形态发育模拟分析

以北京石花洞的石花为研究对象 ,将其分为基底、根部、冠部三个部分。 通过实地观察监测、显微镜和扫描电镜观察、 X射线粉晶衍射以及模拟石花生长实验 ,分析并确定石花的矿物组成 ,讨论其形成条件和造貌水动力特征 ,结果表明:( 1)石花晶体呈树枝状结构 , 其附生基底的矿物几乎全部为方解石 ,仅含极少微量的杂质;石花根部方解石含量 > 90% ,文石及少量杂质含量 < 5% ;石花冠部文石含量 > 90% ,方解石及杂质含量 < 5% ;而就石花整体而言 ,其矿物组成为文石含量> 90% ,方解石及杂质含量 < 5% 。 ( 2)形成石花的环境条件为较封闭、气温稍低但较稳定、洞内湿度较低且气流扰动小。 ( 3)形成石花的造貌水动力为来自基底内部渗出孔隙水的毛细作用。      

花山谜窟景区2号、35号洞窟稳定性分析研究

花山谜窟景区2号、35号洞窟位于安徽省黄山市的新安江畔,其所处的地质环境条件复杂,洞窟区岩石力学的强度差异大,洞窟顶板裂隙较发育,顶板渗水较严重,加之,洞窟内部分支撑柱的间距过大,洞窟开发过程中忽略了对洞窟地质环境的保护等,引发了片状剥落、块状坠落、新生裂缝(顶板及支撑柱)三类洞窟变形失稳问题,这三类问题不仅破坏了洞窟内的地质环境,同时,也给洞窟的科学保护带来了隐患。为此,对洞窟稳定性问题产生的条件进行分析研究,并在此基础上提出了加强洞窟地质环境保护的对策。     

Glacial/interglacial temperature variations in Soreq cave speleothems as recorded by ‘clumped isotope’ thermometry

‘Clumped isotope’ thermometry is based on analyzing mass 47 in CO₂ extracted from carbonates and uses the tracer mass 47 anomaly (Δ₄₇). Δ₄₇ is defined as the deviation of R⁴⁷ from that expected for a random distribution of isotopologues and reflects a temperature dependent preference of ¹³C and ¹⁸O to create a bond with each other in CO₂ or in the carbonate lattice. Being an internal characteristic of the carbonate mineral, it is independent of the isotopic composition of the water in which equilibrium precipitation of the carbonate occurs and can therefore be used to independently determine carbonate growth temperatures. This work provides a first examination of the applicability of ‘clumped isotopes’ thermometry to reconstructing the growth temperatures of speleothems, by examining the glacial/interglacial variations of the Δ₄₇ values of speleothem carbonates from Soreq cave, Israel. The results indicate that the last glacial maximum temperatures were 6-7 °C colder than modern day temperature and a sample at 56 Ky BP was 3 °C colder than the modern. Early Holocene temperatures were slightly above modern day, and late Holocene temperatures were slightly below modern day. These temperature variations are similar to those previously estimated for Eastern Mediterranean sea surface water. Cave water was ¹⁸O depleted in the Holocene compared to modern day (by 0.6-1‰) and 1.1‰ more enriched in the last glacial maximum. Comparison of these cave water δ¹⁸O values with fluid inclusion δD values indicated a late Holocene d-excess value within the range of modern rainfall, implying ∼45% relative humidity. Last glacial maximum and early Holocene d-excess values were significantly lower, suggesting relative humidity of ∼60% and ∼70%, respectively. The temperatures reported in this study were empirically corrected for a non-equilibrium artifact observed in a modern speleothem. The similarity of the temperature variations obtained here to other, independent, records in the region suggests that the Δ₄₇-temperature calibration slope observed in inorganic synthetic calcite and marine organisms may also be applied in speleothems. But the offset observed in modern temperature suggests that the intercept is different so that a separate calibration is needed for accurate absolute temperature reconstruction using speleothem ‘clumped isotopes’. Similar examination of additional caves would be necessary to determine whether such empirical correction can be generally applied or is it a unique characteristic of Soreq cave.     

山东沂源九天洞洞穴环境变化监测分析

为改善九天洞洞穴环境质量及保护洞穴景观提供科学依据,2006年5月1—5日和2006年7月28—30日曾两度对该洞的洞穴空气温度、湿度、CO2浓度和游客量的变化进行实地监测。结果表明,九天洞CO2浓度受游客数量影响,具有明显累积效应,其中灵霄玉塔（测点11）CO2浓度最高,日平均值为11250ppm;CO2浓度之高,国内外颇为罕见;而洞穴温度兼受洞穴滴水及洞穴形态的影响,具有一定的变化幅度;洞穴湿度除了受天气影响外,游客呼吸对封闭洞段湿度增大也有一定的贡献作用。      

贵州纳朵洞洞穴滴水、现代沉积物δ18O特征及其环境意义

为了研究洞穴滴水及其对应的现代沉积物氧同位素的变化特征和对外界气候环境的指示意义,文章对贵州纳朵洞洞外大气降水、洞穴池水、6处滴水点及其对应的现代沉积物氧同位素进行了近2年的监测。结果显示纳朵洞外大气降水和洞穴池水δ18O值均呈现旱季偏重,雨季偏轻的季节特征,基本能反映洞穴所在区域的气候变化。而滴水沉积物δ18O值和滴水δ18O值自身存在协调同步的季节特征,但二者δ18O值与大气降水δ18 O值却呈现反向的季节变化,这可能是区域地形、岩溶表层带的调节和大气环流共同作用的结果。      

A stable isotope study of cave seepage waters

An isotope study (δ¹⁸O, δ²-H) of 62 samples of waters from both the interior of the Nerja cave (Málaga, Southern Spain) and the exterior sinkholes and springs at the site was carried out. Rainfall water in the study area was also studied. The mean value of seepage waters can be considered as the mean isotopic value of the precipitation waters of the area. The origin and aquifers of these different types of waters has also been studied, obtaining a clear meteoric origin both for the seepage waters and the waters from the wells and springs, but the aquifer of the latter is different, showing more negative isotopic values. This suggests that they could have mixed with waters from other aquifers which are either deeper or originate at other altitudes.     

北京石花洞的岩溶地质特征

在全国范围内,北京石花洞洞层最多,钟乳石叠置关系明显,石笋中具有微层理,月奶石发育最好。这些特征为研究西山的新构造运动及古环境的变化提供了新的信息,奠定了首次利用钟乳石建立第四系剖面的基础。     

A multiple cave deposit assessment of suitability of speleothem isotopes for reconstructing palaeo‐vegetation and palaeo‐temperature

The suitability of speleothems for interpreting palaeoclimate is typically determined by using either the Hendy Test, overlapping analysis or long‐term cave environment monitoring. However, in many cases, these methods are not applicable, because a speleothem lacks clearly traceable layers for the Hendy Test, it is difficult to obtain an overlapping speleothem nearby, or long‐term cave monitoring is impractical. The authors propose a multiple cave deposit approach to assess the suitability of speleothems for palaeoclimate study. Speleothems collected from two sites within Raccoon Mountain Cave, Tennessee (USA) exhibit remarkable spatial variation (δ¹³C: ?10·3‰ to ?2·2‰) over a relatively short distance (ca 260 m). Drip water δ¹⁸O values exhibit a seasonal precipitation signal at Site 1 and an annual signal at Site 2. Combining field observations, water isotope analysis and trace‐element data, the authors propose that the speleothem formation at Site 1 and Site 2 tapped distinct sources of CO₂: (i) CO₂ derived from overlying soils for Site 1; and (ii) limestone dissolved inorganic carbon induced by ground water dissolution for Site 2. Using fresh cave deposits (modern speleothem) δ¹³C (100% C3 vegetation) as an analogue, a simple model was developed to estimate land surface vegetation for speleothems. The speleothem formation temperature estimated using fresh cave deposit δ¹⁸O values generally reflects the mean annual temperature in this region. This study indicates that spatial variations in carbon isotopes could be caused by different carbon sources dominating in different parts of the cave, which should be taken into consideration by researchers when using speleothem δ¹³C values to reconstruct temporal palaeo‐vegetation changes. This study demonstrates a practical sampling strategy for verifying suitability of speleothems for palaeo‐vegetation and palaeo‐temperature reconstructions by analysing multiple cave deposits, especially for cases in which the Hendy Test, parallel sampling and long‐term monitoring of cave environment are not feasible.