Livelihoods in transition: transnational gold mining operations and local change in Cajamarca, Peru

This paper examines how transnational gold mining operations are transforming rural household livelihoods in the Cajamarca region of Peru. In particular, this paper evaluates how Newmont Mining Corporation's Minera Yanacocha (MYSA) mining operations are altering access to the produced, human, natural and social capital resources that households utilize to produce their livelihoods. The paper argues that while access to produced and human capital resources has increased in the past decade, albeit unevenly, access to natural and social capital resources has declined. The paper begins with a discussion of new frameworks for evaluating local livelihood change and household access to resources. Subsequently, the paper describes Peru's new transnational mining sector, livelihoods and livelihood change in the Cajamarca region. The paper then presents the results of case study field research evaluating the impacts of MYSA on household access to resources in three communities. Finally, the paper concludes with a critical discussion of livelihoods frameworks and how they can contribute to geographic studies.     

Decentralization and local institutional arrangements for wetland management in Ethiopia and Sierra Leone

In Ethiopia and Sierra Leone, recent social, political and environmental transformations have precipitated the intensification of wetland use, as local people have sought to safeguard and strengthen their livelihoods. Concurrent decentralization policies in both countries have also seen the government strengthen its position at the local level. Drawing upon recent field-based evidence from Ethiopia and Sierra Leone, this paper examines the compatibility between community-based local institutions for wetland use, and the process of decentralization. It argues that decentralization has in fact restricted the development of mature local institutional arrangements, due to its intrinsically political interventionist nature.     

Resource Development and the Perpetuation of Poverty in Rural Laos

ABSTRACT

Government efforts to industrialise and modernise the Lao economy through intensive resource development are having adverse effects on rural livelihoods as resources are degraded and access to limited land and natural resources has intensified. In one of the country's key river basins, Nam Ngum, a series of resource developments including hydropower, mining and agricultural plantations have modified the landscape over the last four decades. Uncoordinated resource developments are putting intense pressure on increasingly scarce natural resources and affecting the lives of people who are dependent on them. Economic diversification of rural households in Feuang District in the Nam Ngum River Basin has created significant discrepancies between the rich and the poor, yet all households remain primarily dependent on agriculture. Land is of enduring importance to rural livelihoods. National development intervention has failed to secure basic livelihoods for rural households.     

Meeting the urban challenge? Urban agriculture and food security in post-conflict Freetown,Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone has recently emerged from a long period of political instability and is ranked among the world's poorest countries. During the decade-long civil war of the 1990s, widespread forced out-migration left much of the countryside abandoned, as rural residents fled to the safety of the capital city, Freetown. Consequently, food production became severely dislocated and, in the post-conflict era, the state of the agricultural sector has become a major concern to governmental and non-governmental development agencies. Focussing on the question of urban food security in Freetown, this paper examines the incidence, dynamics and significance of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) among households, at a crucial point in Sierra Leone's post-conflict reconstruction phase. Drawing on recent field-based data, the paper contributes to the growing debate concerning how urban planning and development might be reconciled with the promotion of an ‘enabling environment’ in which UPA is encouraged and supported. It is argued that in the case of Freetown, a detailed evaluation of UPA is urgently needed to determine how agricultural activities can fit in with urban structure, urban problems and the livelihoods of a wide range of actors in and around the city. The paper concludes that not only is UPA a vital element in ensuring household food security, but it could potentially play a fundamental role in safeguarding the urban food continuum and promoting sustainable urbanization in the post-conflict period and beyond.     

INTEGRATED LANDSCAPE ANALYSES OF CHANGE OF MIOMBO WOODLAND IN TANZANIA AND ITS IMPLICATION FOR ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN LIVELIHOOD

Landscapes bear witness to past and present natural and societal processes influencing the environment and human livelihoods. By analysing landscape change at different spatial scales over time the effects on the environment and human livelihoods of various external and internal driving forces of change can be studied. This paper presents such an analysis of miombo woodland surrounding the Mkata plains in central Tanzania. The rich natural landscape diversity of the study area in combination with its historical and political development makes it an ideal observation ground for this kind of study. The paper focuses on long‐term physical and biological changes, mainly based on satellite information but also on field studies and a review of documents and literature. The miombo woodlands are highly dynamic semi‐arid ecosystems found on a number of nutrient‐poor soil groups. Most of the woodlands are related to an old, low‐relief geomorphology of erosion surfaces with relatively deep and leached soils, or to a lesser extent also on escarpments and steep Inselberg slopes with poor soils. Each period in the past has cast its footprints on the landscape development and its potential for a sustainable future use. On a regional level there has been a continual decrease in forest area over time. Expansion of agriculture around planned villages, implemented during the 1970s, in some cases equals the loss of forest area (Mikumi‐Ulaya), whilst in other areas (Kitulangalo), the pre‐independence loss of woodland was small; the agricultural area was almost the same during the period 1975–1999, despite the fact that forests have been lost at an almost constant rate over the same period. Illegal logging and charcoal production are likely causes because of the proximity to the main highway running through the area. Contrasting to the general regional pattern are the conditions in a traditional village (Ihombwe), with low immigration of people and a maintained knowledge of the resource potential of the forest with regards to edible plants and animals. In this area the local community has control of the forest resources in a Forest Reserve, within which the woody vegetation has increased in spite of an expansion of agriculture on other types of village land. The mapping procedure has shown that factors such as access to transport and lack of local control have caused greater deforestation of certain areas than during the colonial period. Planned villages have furthermore continued to expand over forest areas well after their implementation, rapidly increasing the landscape fragmentation. One possible way to maintain landscape and biodiversity values is by the sustainable use of traditional resources, based on local knowledge of their management as illustrated by the little change observed in the traditionally used area.     

A Geography of Children's Vulnerability: Gender,Household Resources,and Water‐Related Disease Hazard in Northern Pakistan*

Water‐related diseases continue to pose major threats to children's survival and well‐being in many places in the developing world. This article develops a theoretical perspective on the ways in which children's vulnerability to water‐related disease hazard is produced within the everyday circumstances of livelihood and child care. Central to this analysis is the role that household resources play in mediating or shaping particular microenvironments of health risk. Further, the effects of local geographies of gender on how household resources are accessed and on how child care is structured are examined. Children's vulnerability is evaluated in a community in the District of Gilgit in northern Pakistan, a region presently undergoing tremendous social and economic transformation. The case study highlights household‐level response and adaptation to child health risks associated with diarrheal disease transmission and infection in this mountain environment. The case study draws from ethnographic fieldwork involving qualitative household microstudies and interviewing to elicit mothers' resource and risk‐response strategies in the context of changes in livelihood systems and household dynamics.     

中国农户可持续生计研究进展及趋向

开展农户可持续生计研究,对于解决农村贫困问题,促进农村社会经济可持续发展具有重要意义。在查阅大量相关文献的基础上,本文首先阐述了可持续生计的概念,并对国外农户可持续生计研究概况进行了简介;然后从生计资产(资本)研究、生计脆弱性分析、生计策略研究、政策、机构和过程对农户生计影响研究、农户生计与生态环境的相互关系研究等5 个方面对近年来国内农户生计的主要研究进展进行了归纳总结。最后,提出了中国农户可持续生计研究的主要趋向:跨学科综合性、系统性研究,新技术方法的综合与动态研究,农户可持续生计与贫困问题研究,城乡转型期农户可持续生计研究,重点区域的农户可持续生计研究。     

Mining for change? Youth livelihoods and extractive industry investment in Sierra Leone

Over the past two decades, neoliberal reforms, soaring commodity prices and heightened global resource demands have led to significant growth in extractive industry investment across sub-Saharan Africa. A surge of investment has triggered a variety of responses in mineral-rich communities – from outright rejection, to protest over labour conditions, to acceptance in anticipation of gainful employment. Drawing on recent research carried out in Kono District in Sierra Leone, this article critically explores these contrasting responses to mining activities, by focussing on how youth perceive and respond to extractive industry expansion. In doing so, the paper broadens understanding of why youth perceptions of mining investment differ, and illuminates the various factors underlying a diverse range of responses to the expansion of extractive industries. The focus on youth and its heterogeneity as a social category has important policy implications and the paper makes a contribution to understanding the dynamics and diversity of youth livelihood strategies in resource rich developing countries. In making a distinction between autonomous spaces of community-led development 'from below' and corporate controlled spaces of development 'from above', the article reflects on how youth perceptions of extractive industry expansion may also be influencing the ways in which mining companies understand and fashion their business and social responsibility strategies.     

半城镇化农民可持续生计与农村可持续发展——理论框架、研究进展及未来展望

可持续生计理论方法不仅可以应用于城市务工的半城镇化农民,服务于有序推进中国的城镇化,而且可广泛应用于中国西部农村地区和农户尺度的研究,服务于农村可持续发展。本文首先梳理了当前可持续生计的概念及分析框架,并基于半城镇化农民可持续生计与农村可持续发展,从地理学的综合视角提出了一个适应于中国实证研究的理论分析框架。然后依托国家自然科学基金青年科学基金项目“半城镇化农民生计状态评估及市民化阻滞因素与政策调控”,梳理了可持续生计的国际国内研究进展以及半城镇化农民市民化与农村地区可持续发展的中国实证研究成果。最后提出了未来的研究展望,包括半城镇化农民市民化与农村地区可持续发展的联动研究,半城镇化农民市民化转变的主观意愿与客观阻滞因素综合研究,半城镇化农民与农村发展作用机理及其市民化效应,可持续生计与农村可持续发展的集成研究。     

中国工矿区发展形势解析及可持续发展政策研究(英文)

工矿区作为中国重要的资源能源供给基地,长期以来为全国和区域经济社会发展做出了突出贡献。但随着不可再生资源的锐减,在市场经济体制下的区域竞争中,工矿区的经济、社会、生态环境问题日益凸显。本文根据从全国各省市汇总的一手数据,甄选出128个典型工矿区,经分析发现经济发展问题重点表现为可采资源面临枯竭、产业结构失调和财政收支失衡;社会发展问题重点表现为居民生活保障缺失、公共服务水平低下和管理体制机制落后;生态环境问题重点表现为工业污染严重和地质灾害频发。针对这些问题,本文重点围绕产业结构调整、管理体制改革、民生保障服务以及生态环境整治四个方面明确了未来促进工况区改造和可持续发展的对策建议。     

农户生计转型及其生态效应研究进展（英文）

农户生计及其对生态系统的影响是反映人地关系的重要表征。合理恰当的农户生计策略既能满足人类福祉需求,也能促进自然资源的可持续利用,进而维持自然生态系统的健康稳定。学术界围绕农户生计变化、驱动机制及其生态效应等方面开展了大量研究,但关于农户生计转型的生态效应还存在较多争议问题。本文在搜集梳理相关文献基础上,辨析了农户生计的转型机制及生态效应的已有研究成果,并进一步探究了两者之间的耦合关系,发现农户生计的选择受到自然因素、主观意愿和社会政策三方面影响,而农户生计的转型改变了生产、消费、资源利用方式,进而影响着自然生态系统演化过程。文章建立了农户生计转型机制及其生态效应研究框架,最后提出了未来需要深入研究的方向：（1）探究农户生计转型驱动因子之间的相互作用及其对农户生计选择产生影响;（2）结合农户生计转型的驱动因子和生态效应,提出农户生计需求和自然资源利用的双向可持续策略。     

Global Resource Assessments of Primary Metals: An Optimistic Reality Check

The mining of primary metals is critical for a range of modern infrastructure and goods and the continuing growth in global population and consumption means that these primary metals are expected to remain in high demand. However, metallic deposits are, in essence, finite and non-renewable—leading to some concern that we may run out of a given metal in the future. Here, we address this concern by presenting a brief review of the reporting of mineral resource estimates, compiling detailed datasets for national and global trends in mineral resources for numerous metals, and present detailed case studies of major mining projects or fields. The evidence clearly shows strong growth in known mineral resources and cumulative production over time rather than any evidence of gradual resource depletion. In addition, the key factors that already govern existing mining projects and mineral resources are certainly social, environmental and economic in nature rather than geological or related to physical resource depletion. Overall, there is great room for optimism in terms of humankind’s ability to supply future generations with the metals they will require.     

Surfer软件在卤水储量计算及可视化中的应用简介

作为一种宝贵的液态矿产,卤水的用途广泛。卤水具有流动性、不可再生性及贮存空间是孔隙介质而非整个地层空间的特殊性,其资源量应按液态卤水资源和固态矿物资源两部分计算。介绍了基于Surfer的网格法储量计算方法,卤水资源储量计算模型及其三维可视化模型的建立,为卤水资源储量计算提供了一种更为直观、快捷的方法。     

Ecological-Geologic Risks Related to the Development of Resource Regions

The ecological functions and features of the geologic environment are investigated in terms of environmental geology. The current status of the geologic medium is characterized as a crisis, and the issues of its protection and rehabilitation are not appropriately addressed in environmental protection activity of the state and businesses. The most critical ecological-geologic risks include destruction and deformation of geologic strata, huge amounts of industrial waste, oil spills, landscape and soil degradation, air and surface water pollution, seismic and mudflow phenomena, etc. Mining operations have the greatest negative influence on the environmental parameters of the geologic medium. Inadequate attention to issues related to the present state and protection of the geologic medium leads to accidents and crises in industrial installations. Ecological-geologic hazard hotspots have emerged in areas of intense extraction and processing of mineral raw materials. On the other hand, the environmental component of active mineral resource use is neglected when formulating the prospects for a further development of resource regions. The country’s major mining companies, active participants of the world market of mineral resources, are the most proficient in sustainable mineral resource use. In recent years, Russia saw a large-scale improvement of environmental legislation. Many legal innovations focusing on the preservation of the geologic medium are scattered among different laws. The legal and financial preconditions for the ecologization of mineral resource use are examined. The state plays a key role to stimulate the sustainable mining, processing and transportation of useful minerals. It has to change significantly the system to support the geologic medium protection.     

Modelling landfill location using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA): Case study Bo,Southern Sierra Leone

Among the various approaches devised in managing municipal solid wastes, landfills remain the final destination of waste irrespective of the technology used in treating it. Incorrect siting of landfill sites could lead to environmental, social and economic cost; hence, appropriate techniques are required in the identification of potential landfill sites. In densely populated areas in Sierra Leone, there is often tension over the location of landfill sites, where ‘not in my backyard’ campaigns have sparked riots. This article presents a methodological framework for identifying municipal landfill sites in urban areas in Sierra Leone using Bo in Southern Sierra Leone as a case in point. This framework involves a multi-criteria GIS approach that blends two aggregation techniques: Weighted Linear Combination and Ordered Weighted Averaging. Key results show that 83.3% of the study area is unsuitable for municipal landfill.     

REDD+ and incentives: An analysis of income generation in forest-dependent communities of the Yasuní Biosphere Reserve,Ecuador

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) is considered a promising strategy to slow down deforestation rates, promote sustainable forest use, and support rural livelihoods under the umbrella of climate change mitigation. However, so far there is only little field-based knowledge on how REDD+ can go along with subsistence-based production systems and livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. We addressed this research gap by analyzing the income generation of three widespread ethnic groups (Colonists, Shuar, Kichwa) in the buffer zone of the Yasuní National Park in Ecuador to better understand their livelihoods and possible engagement in REDD+. We selected two communities of each ethnic group (close-to and far-from markets) and used household surveys to (a) calculate household incomes, (b) assess the degree of forest-dependency, and (c) discuss how REDD+ schemes can be designed along with traditional subsistence-based production systems. We found that the studied indigenous communities have a higher degree of forest-dependency and higher environmental income compared to Colonists. However, our assumption that close-to-market communities have a lower degree of forest dependency and higher cash income due to better market access and labor opportunities applies only to the Colonists and Shuar, but must be rejected for the Kichwas who gain income from timber sale. Despite these differences, all communities receive high off-farm revenues from unskilled labor provided by oil-companies and external aid. Therefore, dependency on agriculture and forestry is temporarily reduced. Under these circumstances, REDD+ provides only weak financial incentives so that the willingness to participate in REDD+ is low.     

干旱环境胁迫下农户适应性研究——基于民勤绿洲地区农户调查数据

适应能力及其评估框架为农户生计研究提供了一个新思路。本文在干旱环境背景下,借鉴农户可持续生计和适应能力相关理论,探讨民勤绿洲地区农户适应能力及适应行为。按照适应能力评估框架,构建农户适应能力评价指标体系,通过问卷和实地调查获取数据,在农户适应行为分类的基础上,测量不同适应类型农户的适应能力,分析影响农户适应类型的因素。结果表明：①从农户的适应行为来看,积极主动的适应行为选择较多,减少消费、参加社会保险等适应行为选择较少;农户适应类型中,综合适应型的比重最大,被动适应型最小。②农户的适应能力方面,各维度整体分布较为均衡,但自然能力和社会能力存在显著分异,而物质能力、金融能力、劳动能力和学习能力较均衡;不同农户适应类型中,综合适应型农户适应能力更稳定,务工主导型和被动适应型的稳定性较差。在适应能力六大维度中,物质能力在六大农户适应类型中所占比重最大,自然能力最小。③家庭物质资产、非农就业比重、社会网络、人均“退还关压”面积、受教育程度等适应能力指标对农户的适应行为选择具有显著影响。     

中国矿业城市空间形态特征及其空间分异

矿业城市是以矿产资源开采和初加工为主的资源型城市,伴随矿业城市发展的各个阶段,城市空间会呈现相应的演变过程和格局,城市经济的转型也必将带来城市空间结构的响应.矿业城市空间结构受自然资源和产业发展的影响明显,是基于自然资源与产业转型的空间可持续发展的典型研究对象之一.选取中国33个公认的典型地级矿业城市作为研究样本,提取空间结构数据进行紧凑度和分形维数的计算与统计分析,力图总结我国矿业城市对比其他类型城市在空间形态上的基本特征和空间分异规律.结果表明,矿业城市空间形态的紧凑度较低,发展呈分散态;矿业城市空间的边界比较复杂,呈不规则状态;矿业城市紧凑度与边界维数呈负相关;矿业城市空间形态受城市发展阶段、有无依托、其他组织的人为规划等因素影响,呈现一定的空间分异规律;矿业城市空间形态与人口规模和经济发展水平存在相关.     

新时期如何转变矿业经济发展方式

通过黄冈市矿产资源开发利用现状调查和研究,找出了开采和管理中存在的主要问题。这些问题是牵涉矿业生存和发展的大事大非问题,必须从地质找矿、矿产资源合理开发利用、矿山地质环境保护和矿政综合监督管理四个方面进行统筹解决。只有与时俱进,改革创新,转变矿业经济发展方式,整装勘查,科技创新,节约集约综合利用矿产资源,建设绿色矿山,打造和谐矿区,才能找出、管住和用好矿产资源,才能保护好矿山地质环境,才能实现矿业经济全面、协调、健康和可持续发展。