Emerald deposits and occurrences: A review

Emerald, the green gem variety of beryl, is the third most valuable gemstone (after diamond and ruby). Although it is difficult to obtain accurate statistics, Colombia supplies most (an estimated 60%, worth more than $500,000,000 per year) of the world's emeralds. However there is speculation that the emerald mines in Colombia are becoming depleted. Brazil currently accounts for approximately 10% of world emerald production. Emeralds have also been mined in Afghanistan, Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, China, India, Madagascar, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, South Africa, Spain, Tanzania, the United States, and Zimbabwe.Because it is difficult to obtain accurate analyses of beryllium, most published analyses of beryl are renormalized on the basis of 18 oxygen and 3 Be atoms per formula unit. The color of emerald is due to trace amounts of chromium and/or vanadium replacing aluminum at the Y site; in most cases the Cr content is much greater than that of V. To achieve charge balance, the substitution of divalent cations at the Y site is coupled with the substitution of a monovalent cation for a vacancy at a channel site.Beryl is relatively rare because there is very little Be in the upper continental crust. Unusual geologic and geochemical conditions are required for Be and Cr and/or V to meet. In the classic model, Be-bearing pegmatites interact with Cr-bearing ultramafic or mafic rocks. However in the Colombian deposits there is no evidence of magmatic activity and it has been demonstrated that circulation processes within the host black shales were sufficient to form emerald. In addition, researchers are recognizing that regional metamorphism and tectonometamorphic processes such as shear zone formation may play a significant role in certain emerald deposits.A number of genetic classification schemes have been proposed for emerald deposits. Most are ambiguous when it comes to understanding the mechanisms and conditions that lead to the formation of an emerald deposit. Studies of individual emerald deposits show that in most cases a combination of mechanisms (magmatic, hydrothermal, and metamorphic) were needed to bring Be into contact with the chromophores. This suggests the need for a more flexible classification scheme based on mode of formation. Stable isotopes can be used to estimate the contribution of each mechanism in the formation of a particular deposit. Such estimates could perhaps be more precisely defined using trace element data, which should reflect the mode of formation.Emerald may be identified in the field by color, hardness, and form. It will tend to show up in stream sediment samples but because its specific gravity is relatively low, it will not concentrate in the heavy mineral fraction. In Colombia, structural geology, the sodium content of stream sediment samples, and the lithium, sodium, and lead contents of soil samples have all been used to find emerald occurrences. Exploration for gem beryl could result in the discovery of new occurrences of non-gem beryl or other Be minerals that could become new sources of Be and Be oxide.Future efforts should go towards creating a comprehensive data base of emerald compositions (including trace elements), determination of the role of metamorphism in the formation of some emerald deposits, improved classification schemes, and more effective exploration guidelines.     

Petroporphyrins in Gaosheng crude oil

China's Gaosheng crude oil is characterized as being high in nickel and low in vanadium. Nickel porphyrins were extracted with dimetrylformamide, concentrated by absorption chromatography and demetallized with methylsulfonic acid. The concentrate of demetallized porphyrins was then separated by centrifugal thin-layer chromatography, in which DPEP, ETIO, Di-DPEP, Rhdo-ETIO, Rhdo-DPEP and Rhodo-Di-DPEP types of porphyrin were identified by mass spectrometry and UV-VIS spectroscopy. The possible geochemical pathways from DPEP to Di-DPEP and from Di-DPEP to Rhodo-DPEP series are discussed.     

Organic inclusions and their relations to oil and gas occurrences

154 core and outcrop samples of Proterozoic and Palaeozoic reservoir and non-reservoir strata were collected from Renqui, Subei, Guangxi, Sichuan, etc. Organic inclusions contained in the samples were studied by means of polarized light microscope, fluorescence microscope, micro-cooling-heating stage and compositional analysis. According to HC phase, colour, refractive index and fluorescent properties, organic inclusions can be classified as two braod types: HC inclusions and HC-containing inclusions, which can be further subdivided into eight subtypes. Also discussed in this paper are the types and peculiarities of organic inclusions, as well as the composition of gases, parameters for organic molecules and paleotemperature, which are considered to be useful indicators for oil and gas migration, evolution and prospective evaluation. Some typical examples are also given in this study.     

Effect of capillary pressure on distribution of gas and oil occurrences in lateral migration of oil and gas

In a chain of structural traps the same collector stratum sometimes contains oil, sometimes gas, sometimes water. Phenomena here disclosed show why empty or half empty traps occur between others filled with gas or oil, both in the pattern resembling the differential trapping of these fluids and in any other pattern. While still an important principle in the forming of deposits, differential trapping of oil and gas during their lateral migration is neither universal nor exclusive. – Authors.     

包气带中原油的迁移和降解研究

在石油的开采和集输过程中,常常有大量的原油抛洒和泄漏,这对土壤和植物地造成严重污染,本文通过大量野外和室内的原油渗透试验,含油地层的淋滤试验和石油的生物降解试验,来研究石油污染物在包气带中迁移,转化和降解规律,从而地下水石油污染的潜在性作出科学的评价。     

原油物性演化规律新发现及其对页岩油勘探的启示

针对烃源岩生成的原油物性随热演化如何变化的问题,本文基于对准噶尔盆地玛湖凹陷下二叠统风城组和吉木萨尔凹陷中二叠统芦草沟组下段源储紧邻自生自储页岩油物性、地化特征、成藏特征及原油物性与烃源岩热演化关系的分析,综合烃源岩生烃热模拟实验结果与国内外相关文献资料,首次确认了咸化湖相烃源岩生成的原油物性与烃源岩热演化程度之间的变化规律。认为页岩油源岩生成的原油密度和黏度具有随热演化程度增强先增加而后降低的规律,其中生油高峰附近生成的原油非烃相对含量、密度和黏度最高。该认识不仅是对已有的石油地质学中原油物性随热演化规律认识的进一步厘定和修正,而且对页岩油甜点段、甜点区的选择以及页岩油原位转化等都有极为重要和现实的指导作用。     

Charactristics of the Biomarkers from Nonmarine Crude Oils in China—A Review

The present paper deals with the biomarker characteristics of crude oils and source rocks from different environments(fresh,fresh-brackish and salt waters)of nonmarine depositional basins of different ages in China.Their characters are summarized as follows:1)Souce rocks and crude oils derived from fresh-water lacustrine facies have an odd/even predominance of n-alkanes and high pristine/phytane ratios.Oils from the fresh-water lacustrine facies differ from typical marine oils in the relative contents of total steranes and terpanes,the concentrations of hopanes and organic sul-phur compounds and the values of methylphenanthrene indices and C,H,S stable isotopes.2)The source rocks and crude oils derived from saline lacustrine facies possess an even/odd predominance of n-alkanes and high phytane/pristine ratios.There are also some differences between saline lacustrine oils and freshwater lacustrine oils in the concentrations of steranes,tricyclic terpanes and organic sulphur compounds,as well as in the values of methylphenanthrene indices and C,H,S stable isotopes.3)Oils derived from fresh-brackish water lake facies differ from oils from fresh-water lacustrine or samline lacustrine environments in respect of some biomarkers.According to the various distributions of these biomarkers,a number of geochemical parameters can be applied synthetically to differentiating and identifying the nature of original depositional environments of crude oils and source rocks and that of organisms-primary source materials present in those environments.     

Interaction of crude oils and water in Sakhalin oil fields

Distribution of the specific gravity of oil and the yield of fractions up to 300° is considered as a function of hypsometric position of the samples with respect to the pool outline. Relationship is determined between the difference in specific gravity of edge- and crest oils and the carbon dioxide ion content in edgewaters; it is explained by oxidation of oil by the waters. It is demonstrated by means of graphs for Ekhabi and Tungor oil fields that oxidation is more important than the force of gravity, in the distribution of the properties of oil throughout the deposit. The flushing effect of waters on the light petroleum fractions proves to be less significant that the oxidation effect. Calculation shows that the loss of oil by oxidation is small at depths below 600 m; losses by water flushing are even smaller, but rise rapidly at shallower depths. -- Author.     

Groundwater dynamics forecasting criteria of oil and gas occurrences in alpine mobile belt basins

The paper describes the indispensable functional relationship between large-scale hydrocarbon trap saturation and limited space overflow-injection hydrogeological processes outside the regional action of elision and artesian mechanisms. We propose a set of qualitative criteria and quantitative indicators of oil and gas potential, making it possible to minimize the risks of geological exploration and production and create individual forecast zones and priority areas of oil and gas accumulation.     

On the usefulness of sulfur isotope ratios in crude oil correlations

Sulfur isotope analyses have been completed for twelve samples of marine Jurassic oils from a single basin, and are presented along with previous chemical analyses of the same oils (Seifert and Moldowan, 1978). Two isotopic anomalies are discussed in light of correlational analyses, and show that sulfur isotope ratios, when used with other chemical variables, are sensitive indicators of subtle changes in initial source input. Measurements of δ³⁴S in correlational studies of crude oil characterization and identification are recommended.     

祁连山不同海拔低温原油降解菌群的分布特性研究

以祁连山南麓中端野牛沟土壤为研究对象,研究了不同海拔下低温原油降解细菌群落的分布特征。结果显示：研究区域具有原油利用潜力的低温降解菌数量为0.3×10⁵~1.4×10⁵CFU ·g^-1,随海拔的升高,菌群明显减少;同时通过16S rRNA基因序列分析共发现4个门、7个属、25种细菌,其中假单胞菌属（Pseudomonas）和节杆菌属（Arthrobacter）是优势属,并且位于海拔3597m处的菌株原油利用潜力均较高,而变形菌门的不动杆菌属（Acinetobacter）利用原油生长的潜力最高。     

Impact of anaerobic biodegradation on alkylphenanthrenes in crude oil

The biodegradation of crude oil by microorganisms from well Luo-801, China, was examined in cultures grown under conditions that promoted either methanogenesis or sulfate reduction, at 35 °C and 55 °C. Headspace gas and oil compositions were characterized at 180 d and 540 d. Alkylphenanthrenes are relatively recalcitrant to bacterial attack and the biodegradation of these compounds appeared to be insignificant after 180 d under both conditions, but is evident after 540 d. The depletion of alkylphenanthrenes was monitored through evaluation of the ratio of alkylphenanthrenes to the most bioresistant, analyzed component (C₂₈ 20R triaromatic steroid hydrocarbon) and isomer susceptibility also was evaluated by relative abundance comparison within the compound class. The influence of growth temperature varied. Only slight differences in alkylphenanthrene concentrations were observed after 180 d whereas the greater degrees of biodegradation were observed at 35 °C in the methanogenic culture and at 55 °C in the sulfate reducing culture. Overall, higher biodegradation rates occur under sulfate reducing condition, which is consistent with the conclusion that methanogens are generally less able to compete for substrates than sulfate reducers. The biodegradation susceptibility of alkylphenanthrenes decreases with increasing degree of alkylation, i.e., phenanthrene (P) and methylphenanthrenes (MPs) were more easily biodegradable than C₂-alkylphenanthrenes (C₂-Ps) and C₃-alkylphenanthrenes (C₃-Ps). Biodegradation selectivity for specific homologues is not striking for the limited time duration of the experiments. However, 3-MP seems slightly more vulnerable than other methylphenanthrene isomers and 1,7-DMP has slightly higher ability to resist biodegradation than the other C₂-P isomers. The commonly used thermal maturity parameters derived from methylphenanthrene isomer ratios are altered insignificantly by biodegradation and remain valid for geochemical assessment. This information should be useful for assessing the limits of in situ crude oil biodegradation.     

Global nature of the Paleoproterozoic Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion: A review of occurrences in Brazil,India, and Uruguay

Positive carbon isotope excursion is reported from Paleoproterozoic carbonates of the Aravalli Supergroup (northwestern India), the Minas Supergroup (Brazil), and new sections of the Paso Severino Formation (Uruguay). The 2.42 Ga Gandarela Formation, Minas Gerais, Brazil, contains red carbonate-facies BIF grading into dolostones and limestones and yielding δ¹³C values ranging from −1.6 to +0.4‰ V-PDB. The positive C-isotope excursion (up to + 11‰ V-PDB) in marine shallow-water carbonates in India and Brazil (Jhamarkotra Formation in northwestern India, and Cercadinho and Fecho do Funil formations in Minas Gerais State, Brazil) is comparable to that observed in 2.22–2.1 Ga carbonate successions worldwide that were deposited during the Lomagundi excursion. In Uruguay, δ¹³C values up to +11.6‰ V-PDB in the deep-water Paso Severino Formation of the Piedra Alta Terrane are compatible with deposition at ca. 2.15 Ga, as indicated by the 2146 ± 7 Ma U–Pb age of dacites occurring at the top of the unit. Negative δ¹³C values are also present in carbonates of the Paso Severino Formation, but an origin related to organic-matter remineralization cannot be ruled out. Thin carbonate beds in the Rio Itapicuru greenstone belt, Bahia State, Brazil, are associated, as in the Paso Severino Formation, with deep-water black shales and have carbon isotope values up to +9‰ V-PDB. High metamorphic grade carbonates of the Jacurici terrane in the Medrado-Ipueira area, Bahia, Brazil, have carbon isotope values up to +6.9‰ V-PDB, consistent with their minimum age of 2085 ± 5 Ma inferred from the intrusive contact with and the age of the Medrado norite. No evidence was found in India, Brazil, or Uruguay for Paleoproterozoic glacial events recognized in the 2.45–2.22 Ga sedimentary successions worldwide. Unconformities between the Gandarela and Cercadinho formations in Brazil and the banded gneissic Complex and the Lower Aravalli Supergroup in India might explain the absence of glacial record. Compositional and isotopic data presented here for studied Paleoproterozoic carbonate successions allow their integration into the global record of the Paleoproterozoic evolution as well as correlation with other successions of similar age. The study highlights the global nature of the Lomagundi excursion. Furthermore, it indicates that the Lomagundi excursion is recorded in both shallow-water (Aravalli and Minas supergroups) and deep-water carbonates (Paso Severino Formation and Rio Itapicuru greenstone belt) negating a significant impact of stromatolite productivity and hypersaline conditions on carbon isotope values of carbonates deposited in shallow-water, open-marine and isolated basins.     

准噶尔盆地车排子地区原油油源分析

车排子地区紧邻沙湾凹陷和四棵树凹陷,油源条件优越,具有多层系含油特点,前人对该区原油油源认识存在较大分歧。本次研究在研究区原油生物标志物分析基础上,结合金刚烷异构化指标和正构烷烃单体碳同位素分布,对车排子地区原油油源进行了分析。结果表明,车排子地区存在3类原油:(1)Ⅰ类原油为新近系沙湾组轻质油,表现为侏罗系来源特征, Pr/Ph比值大于2.0,原油碳同位素值偏重,δ¹³C值大于-28.0‰,姥鲛烷(Pr)、植烷(Ph)和三环萜烷含量较低, Pr/n C17和Ph/n C₁₈比值小于0.3,不含β-胡萝卜烷,三环萜烷/藿烷比值分布在0.08～0.18之间,C₂₄四环萜烷/C₂₆三环萜烷比值分布在1.61～3.81之间,ααα20R规则甾烷具有C₂₇和C₂₉规则甾烷优势,呈C₂₇>C₂₈29分布;金刚烷异构化指标I_MA值在0.30～0.38之间, I     

Metallogeny of South Greenland: A review of geological evolution,mineral occurrences and geochemical exploration data

South Greenland has been the site of historic mining of cryolite, copper, graphite and gold, hosts mineral deposits with gold, uranium, zinc, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, hafnium, REE, iron, titanium, vanadium, fluorite and graphite, and has additional potential for lithium, beryllium, phosphorus, gallium and thorium. Data from stream sediment geochemical surveys document that South Greenland is enriched in a range of these elements relative to the rest of Greenland and to estimates of the upper crust composition. Distribution patterns for individual elements within south Greenland exhibit enriched regions that are spatially related to lithological units, crustal structure and known mineralisation.The Northern Domain of South Greenland includes the southernmost part of the orthogneiss-dominated North Atlantic craton. Orogenic gold mineralisation is hosted by quartz veins and hydrothermally altered rocks associated with shear zones intersecting the Mesoarchaean Tartoq Group of mafic metavolcanic rocks. Geochemical exploration indicates that additional potential for gold mineralisation exists within Palaeoproterozoic supracrustal rocks overlying the Archaean basement.Rocks formed during the Palaeoproterozoic Ketilidian orogeny occupy a major part of South Greenland and has been divided into two domains. The Central Domain is underlain by the Julianehåb igneous complex forming a 100 km wide ENE–WSW zone centrally across South Greenland. Intrusive and extrusive, mostly felsic magmatic rocks were emplaced in two main stages (1850–1830 and 1800–1780 Ma) in a continental arc setting. Positive anomalies in aeromagnetic data indicate that mafic plutons are common in the late igneous complex. Intra-arc mafic metavolcanic rocks contain syngenetic stratabound copper sulphide and epigenetic shear zone-hosted copper–silver–gold mineralisation at Kobberminebugt and Kangerluluk, whereas metasedimentary and metapyroclastic rocks contain stratabound uraninite mineralisation. Orthomagmatic iron–titanium–vanadium mineralisation is hosted by a gabbro. A potential for porphyry-type mineralisation related to the late intrusive stages of the Julianehåb igneous complex is suggested by showings with copper, molybdenum and gold together with stream sediment anomalies for these elements. Vein-type uranium mineralisation occurs in fault zones in the Julianehåb igneous complex related to Mesoproterozoic rifting.The Southern Domain contains an assemblage of Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks that underwent moderate to strong deformation, peak HT–LP metamorphism and partial melting with subsequent retrograde exhumation at 1790–1765 Ma. The supracrustal rocks contain syngenetic Au, As, Sb, U, and Zn mineralisation in volcanic or graphite- and sulphide-rich sedimentary environments; graphite was mined historically at two sites. Many stream sediment gold anomalies are located in a NE-trending belt along the boundary between the early Julianehåb complex and the supracrustal rocks to the south. They reflect a number of auriferous quartz vein occurrences, including the Nalunaq gold deposit, hosted in a system of shear zones and probably generated as orogenic gold during Ketilidian accretion. The 1755–1730 Ma, A-type Ilua plutonic suite is the latest magmatic event in the Ketilidian orogen.The 1300–1140 Ma Gardar period involved continental rifting, sedimentation and alkaline magmatism. Numerous dykes and 10 ring-shaped intrusion complexes were formed across South Greenland. An orthomagmatic iron–titanium–vanadium deposit is hosted by troctolitic gabbro. Residual magmas and fluids resulting from extreme magmatic differentiation, possibly combined with assimilation of older crust, created mineral deposits including cryolite that was mined at Ivigtut, large low-grade deposits of uranium–rare earth elements–zinc at Kvanefjeld and tantalum–niobium–rare earth element–zirconium at Kringlerne, in the Ilímaussaq complex, as well as tantalum–niobium–rare earth elements at Motzfeldt Sø in the Igaliko complex.The South Greenland crustal evolution records effects of mantle processes, such as lithospheric extension, subduction and underplating, which resulted in recurrent magma emplacement in tectonically active environments. As such, the geology of South Greenland reflects events and circumstances that are favourable to the generation and preservation of hydrothermal ore-forming fluid systems during the Ketilidian orogeny as well as to the development of extreme rock compositions within the Gardar alkaline igneous province.     

A new approach for crude oil price prediction based on stream learning

Crude oil is the world's leading fuel, and its prices have a big impact on the global environment, economy as well as oil exploration and exploitation activities. Oil price forecasts are very useful to industries, governments and individuals. Although many methods have been developed for predicting oil prices, it remains one of the most challenging forecasting problems due to the high volatility of oil prices. In this paper, we propose a novel approach for crude oil price prediction based on a new machine learning paradigm called stream learning. The main advantage of our stream learning approach is that the prediction model can capture the changing pattern of oil prices since the model is continuously updated whenever new oil price data are available, with very small constant overhead. To evaluate the forecasting ability of our stream learning model, we compare it with three other popular oil price prediction models. The experiment results show that our stream learning model achieves the highest accuracy in terms of both mean squared prediction error and directional accuracy ratio over a variety of forecast time horizons.