http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S167498711200148X

The Earth was born from a giant impact at 4.56 Ga. It is generally thought that the Earth subsequently cooled, and hence shrunk, over geologic time. However, if the Earth's convection was double-layered, there must have been a peak of expansion during uni-directional cooling. We computed the expansion-contraction effect using first principles mineral physics data. The result shows a radius about 120 km larger than that of the present Earth immediately after the consolidation of the magma-ocean on the surface, and subsequent shrinkage of about 110 km in radius within about 10 m.y., followed by gradual expansion of 11 km in radius due to radiogenic heating in the lower mantle in spite of cooling in the upper mantle in the Archean. This was due to double-layered convection in the Archean with final collapse of overturn with contraction of about 8 km in radius, presumably by the end of the Archean. Since then, the Earth has gradually cooled down to reduce its radius by around 12 km. Geologic evidence supports the late Archean mantle overturn ca. 2.6 Ga, such as the global distribution of super-liquidus flood basalts on nearly all cratonic fragments (>35 examples). If our inference is correct, the surface environment of the Earth must have undergone extensive volcanism and emergence of local landmasses, because of the thin ocean cover (3–5 km thickness). Global unconformity appeared in cratonic fragments with stromatolite back to 2.9 Ga with a peak at 2.6 Ga. The global magmatism brought extensive crustal melting to yield explosive felsic volcanism to transport volcanic ash into the stratosphere during the catastrophic mantle overturn. This event seems to be recorded by sulfur mass-independent fractionation (SMIF) at 2.6 Ga. During the mantle overturn, a number of mantle plumes penetrated into the upper mantle and caused local upward doming of by ca. 2–3 km which raised local landmasses above sea-level. The consequent increase of atmospheric oxygen enabled life evolution from prokaryotes to eukaryotes by 2.1 Ga, or even earlier in the Earth history.     

地幔转换带条件下岩石矿物波速测量方法:超声波与多面砧技术的结合

地幔矿物的波速测量研究是认识地球深部物质组成和性质的重要方法.国际上在大压机中利用超声波技术对地幔矿物材料开展了广泛的波速测量研究,实验温压范围达到地幔转换带条件,而国内大压机超声波波速测量局限于6 GPa压力以内.在中国地质大学(武汉)地球深部研究实验室1 000 t Walker型多面砧大压机上,利用超声波技术,建立了一套高压波速测量系统,对地幔转换带矿物Mg₂SiO₄瓦兹利石多晶样品在18 GPa压力范围内的弹性波速进行了测量,测量结果与前人超声波波速测量结果相比总体吻合程度良好.利用多面砧大压机和超声波技术,在国内首次实现了地幔转换带高压条件下的波速测量,缩短了我国高压波速测量水平与国外先进水平的差距,同时可以为中国及周边地区地球物理观测资料的解析提供矿物物理方面的实验约束,为国内岩石矿物和固体材料的弹性研究提供实验技术支持.      

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987112001570

The supercontinent cycle,by which Earth history is seen as having been punctuated by the episodic assembly and breakup of supercontinents,has influenced the rock record more than any other geologic phenomena,and its recognition is arguably the most important advance in Earth Science since plate tectonics.It documents fundamental aspects of the planet’s interior dynamics and has charted the course of Earth’s tectonic,climatic and biogeochemical evolution for billions of years.But while the widespread realization of the importance of supercontinents in Earth history is a relatively recent development,the supercontinent cycle was first proposed thirty years ago and episodicity in tectonic processes was recognized long before plate tectonics provided a potential explanation for its occurrence.With interest in the supercontinent cycle gaining momentum and the literature expanding rapidly,it is instructive to recall the historical context from which the concept developed.Here we examine the supercontinent cycle from this perspective by tracing its development from the early recognition of long-term episodicity in tectonic processes,through the identification of tectonic cycles following the advent of plate tectonics,to the first realization that these phenomena were the manifestation of episodic supercontinent assembly and breakup.     

Composition of aqueous fluid coexisting with mantle minerals at high pressure and its bearing on the differentiation of the Earth’s mantle

In order to understand the role of aqueous fluid on the differentiation of the mantle, the compositions of aqueous fluids coexisting with mantle minerals were investigated in the system MgO-SiO₂-H₂O at pressures of 3 to 10 GPa and temperatures of 1000 to 1500°C with an MA8-type multianvil apparatus. Phase boundaries between the stability fields of forsterite + aqueous fluid, forsterite + enstatite + aqueous fluid, and enstatite + aqueous fluid were determined by varying the bulk composition at constant temperature and pressure. The composition of aqueous fluid coexisting with forsterite and enstatite can be defined by the intersection of these two phase boundaries. The solubility of silicate components in aqueous fluid coexisting with forsterite and enstatite increases with increasing pressure up to 8 GPa, from about 30 wt% at 3 GPa to about 70 wt% at 8 GPa. It becomes almost constant above 8 GPa. The Mg/Si weight ratio of these aqueous fluids is much higher than at low pressure (0.2 at 1.5 GPa) and almost constant (1.2) at pressures between 3 and 8 GPa. At 10 GPa, it becomes about 1.4. Aqueous fluid migrating upward through the mantle can therefore dissolve large amounts of silicates, leaving modified Mg/Si ratios of residual materials. It is suggested that the chemical stratification of Mg/Si in the Earth may have been formed as a result of aqueous fluid migration.     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987112001272

Our blue planet Earth has long been regarded to carry full of nutrients for hosting life since the birth of the planet.Here we speculate the processes that led to the birth of early life on Earth and its aftermath, finally leading to the evolution of metazoans.We evaluate:（1） the source of nutrients,（2） the chemistry of primordial ocean,（3） the initial mass of ocean,and（4） the size of planet.Among the life-building nutrients,phosphorus and potassium play a key role.Only three types of rocks can serve as an adequate source of nutrients:（a） continent-forming TTG（granite）,enabling the evolution of primitive life to metazoans;（b） primordial continents carrying anorthosite with KREEP（Potassium,Rare Earth Elements, and Phosphorus） basalts,which is a key to bear life;（c） carbonatite magma,enriched in radiogenic elements such as U and Th,which can cause mutation to speed up evolution and promote the birth of new species in continental rift settings.The second important factor is ocean chemistry.The primordial ocean was extremely acidic（pH = 1-2） and enriched in halogens（CI,F and others）,S,N and metallic elements（Cd,Cu,Zn,and others）,inhibiting the birth of life.Plate tectonics cleaned up these elements which interfered with RNA.Blue ocean finally appeared in the Phanerozoic with pH = 7 through extensive interaction with surface continental crust by weathering,erosion and transportation into ocean.The initial ocean mass was also important.The birth of life and aftermath of evolution was possible in the habitable zone with 3-5 km deep ocean which was able to supply sufficient nutrients. Without a huge landmass,nutrients cannot be supplied into the ocean only by ridge-hydrothermal circulation in the Hadean.Finally,the size of the planet plays a crucial role.Cooling of massive planets is less efficient than smaller ones,so that return-flow of seawater into mantle does not occur until central stars finish their main sequence.Due to the suitable size of Earth,the dawn of Phanerozoic witnessed the initiation of return-flow of seawater into the mantle,leading to the emergence of huge landmass above sea-level,and the distribution of nutrients on a global scale.Oxygen pump also played a critical role to keep high-PO₂ in atmosphere since then,leading to the emergence of ozone layer and enabling animals and plants to invade the land. To satisfy the tight conditions to make the Earth habitable,the formation mechanism of primordial Earth is an important factor.At first,a ’dry Earth’ must be made through giant impact,followed by magma ocean to float nutrient-enriched primordial continents（anorthosite + KREEP）.Late bombardment from asteroid belt supplied water to make 3-5 km thick ocean,and not from icy meteorites from Kuiper belt beyond cool Jupiter.It was essential to meet the above conditions that enabled the Earth as a habitable planet with evolved life forms.The tight constraints that we evaluate for birth and evolution of life on Earth would provide important guidelines for planetary scientists hunting for life in the exosolar planets.     

Why did life develop on the surface of the Earth in the Cambrian?

Life was limited for most of Earth's history, remaining at a primitive stage and mostly marine until about 0.55 Ga. In the Paleozoic, life eventually exploded and colonized the continental realm. Why had there been such a long period of delayed evolution of life? Early life was dominated by Archaea and Bacteria,which can survive ionizing radiation better than other organisms. The magnetic field preserves the atmosphere, which is the main shield of UV radiation. We explore the hypothesis that the Cambrian explosion of life could have been enabled by the increase of the magnetic field dipole intensity due to the solidification of the inner core, caused by the cooling of the Earth, and the concomitant decrease with time of the high-energy solar flux since the birth of the solar system. Therefore, the two phenomena could be responsible for the growth and thickening of the atmosphere and the development of land surface life.     

Supercontinent tectonics and biogeochemical cycle： A matter of ‘life and death＇

<正>The formation and disruption of supercontinents have significantly impacted mantle dynamics,solid earth processes,surface environments and the biogeochemical cycle.In the early history of the Earth,the collision of parallel intra-oceanic arcs was an important process in building embryonic continents.Superdownwelling along Y-shaped triple junctions might have been one of the important processes that aided in the rapid assembly of continental fragments into closely packed supercontinents. Various models have been proposed for the fragmentation of supercontinents including thermal blanket and superplume hypotheses.The reassembly of supercontinents after breakup and the ocean closure occurs through "introversion","extroversion" or a combination of both,and is characterized by either Pacific-type or Atlantic-type ocean closure.The breakup of supercontinents and development of hydrothermal system in rifts with granitic basement create anomalous chemical environments enriched in nutrients, which serve as the primary building blocks of the skeleton and bone of early modern life forms. A typical example is the rifting of the Rodinia supercontinent,which opened up an N—S oriented sea way along which nutrient enriched upwelling brought about a habitable geochemical environment.The assembly of supercontinents also had significant impact on life evolution.The role played by the Cambrian Gondwana assembly has been emphasized in many models,including the formation of 'Trans-gondwana Mountains' that might have provided an effective source of rich nutrients to the equatorial waters,thus aiding the rapid increase in biodiversity.The planet has witnessed several mass extinction events during its history,mostly connected with major climatic fluctuations including global cooling and warming events,major glaciations,fluctuations in sea level,global anoxia,volcanic eruptions, asteroid impacts and gamma radiation.Some recent models speculate a relationship between superplumes,supercontinent breakup and mass extinction.Upwelling plumes cause continental rifting and formation of large igneous provinces.Subsequent volcanic emissions and resultant plume-induced "winter" have catastrophic effect on the atmosphere that lead to mass extinctions and long term oceanic anoxia.The assembly and dispersal of continents appear to have influenced the biogeochemical cycle,but whether the individual stages of organic evolution and extinction on the planet are closely linked to Solid Earth processes remains to be investigated.     

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.10.005

The Earth was born as a dry planet without atmosphere and ocean components at 4.56 Ga, with subsequent secondary accretion of bio-elements, such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N) which peaked at 4.37–4.20 Ga. This two-step formation model of the Earth we refer to as the advent of bio-elements model (ABEL Model) and the event of the advent of bio-elements (water component) as ABEL Bombardment. It is clear that the solid Earth originated from enstatite chondrite-like dry material based on the similarity in oxygen isotopic composition and among other isotopes. On the other hand, Earth's water derives primarily from carbonaceous chondrite material based on the hydrogen isotopic ratio. We present our ABEL model to explain this enigma between solid Earth and water, as well as secondary accretion of oxidizing bio-elements, which became a precursor to initiate metabolism to emerge life on a highly reductive planet. If ABEL Bombardment had not occurred, life never would have emerged on the Earth. Therefore, ABEL Bombardment is one of the most important events for this planet to evolve into a habitable planet. The chronology of ABEL Bombardment is informed through previous researches of the late heavy bombardment and the late veneer model. ABEL Bombardment is considered to have occurred during 4.37–4.20 Ga, which is the concept to redefine the standard late heavy bombardment and the late veneer models. Also, ABEL Bombardment is the trigger of the transition from stagnant lid tectonics to plate tectonics on this planet because of the injection of volatiles into the initial dry Earth.     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987114001558

The "Arctic" region,where the North Pole occupies the center of the Arctic Ocean,has been affecting the environmental variation of the Earth from geological time to the present.However,the seismic activities in the area are not adequately monitored.Therefore,by conducting long term monitoring of seismic phenomenon as sustainable parameters,our understanding of both the tectonic evolution of the Earth and the dynamic interaction between the cryosphere and geosphere in surface layers of the Earth will increase.In this paper,the association of the seismicity and structure of the Arctic region,particularly focused on Eurasian continent and surrounding oceans,and its relationship with regional evolution during the Earth's history is studied.The target areas cover representative tectonic provinces in the Eurasian Arctic,such as the wide area of Siberia,Baikal Rift Zone.Far East Russia,Arctic Ocean together with Greenland and Northern Canada.Based on discussion including characteristics of seismicity,heterogeneous structure of the crust and upper mantle,tectonic history and recent dynamic features of the Earth's surface in the Arctic are summarized.     

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.07.005

The Hadean history of Earth is shrouded in mystery and it is considered that the planet was born dry with no water or atmosphere. The Earth-Moon system had many features in common during the birth stage. Solidification of the dry magma ocean at 4.53 Ga generated primordial continents with komatiite. We speculate that the upper crust was composed of fractionated gabbros and the middle felsic crust by anorthosite at ca. 21 km depth boundary, underlain by meta-anorthosite (grossular + kyanite + quartz) down to 50–60 km in depth. The thickness of the mafic KREEP basalt in the lower crust, separating it from the underlying upper mantle is not well-constrained and might have been up to ca. 100–200 km depending on the degree of fractionation and gravitational stability versus surrounding mantle density. The primordial continents must have been composed of the final residue of dry magma ocean and enriched in several critical elements including Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, P, K, and Cl which were exposed on the surface of the dry Earth. Around 190 million years after the solidification of the magma ocean, “ABEL bombardment” delivered volatiles including H₂O, CO₂, N₂ as well as silicate components through the addition of icy asteroids. This event continued for 200 Myr with subordinate bombardments until 3.9 Ga, preparing the Earth for the prebiotic chemical evolution and as the cradle of first life. Due to vigorous convection arising from high mantle potential temperatures, the primordial continents disintegrated and were dragged down to the deep mantle, marking the onset of Hadean plate tectonics.     

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.08.001

Geological observations indicate that there are only a few rocks of Archean Earth and no Hadean rocks on the surface of the present-day Earth. From these facts, many scientists believe that the primordial continents never existed during Hadean Earth, and the continental volume has kept increasing. On the other hand, recent studies reported the importance of the primordial continents on the origin of life, implying their existence. In this paper, we discussed the possible process that could explain the loss of the primordial continents with the assumption that they existed in the Hadean. Although depending on the timing of the initiation of plate tectonics and its convection style, subduction erosion, which is observed on the present-day Earth, might have carried the primordial continents into the deep mantle.     

Accretion of Moon and Earth and the emergence of life.

The discrepancy between the impact records on the Earth and Moon in the time period, 4.0-3.5 Ga calls for a re-evaluation of the cause and localization of the late lunar bombardment. As one possible explanation, we propose that the time coverage in the ancient rock record is sufficiently fragmentary, so that the effects of giant, sterilizing impacts throughout the inner solar system, caused by marauding asteroids, could have escaped detection in terrestrial and Martian records. Alternatively, the lunar impact record may reflect collisions of the receding Moon with a series of small, original satellites of the Earth and their debris in the time period about 4.0-3.5 Ga. The effects on Earth of such encounters could have been comparatively small. The location of these tellurian moonlets has been estimated to have been in the region around 40 Earth radii. Calculations presented here, indicate that this is the region that the Moon would traverse at 4.0-3.5 Ga, when the heavy and declining lunar bombardment took place. The ultimate time limit for the emergence of life on Earth is determined by the effects of planetary accretion--existing models offer a variety of scenarios, ranging from low average surface temperature at slow accretion of the mantle, to complete melting of the planet followed by protracted cooling. The choice of accretion model affects the habitability of the planet by dictating the early evolution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Further exploration of the sedimentary record on Earth and Mars, and of the chemical composition of impact-generated ejecta on the Moon, may determine the choice between the different interpretations of the late lunar bombardment and cast additional light on the time and conditions for the emergence of life.     

High pressure generation in Kawai-type multianvil apparatus using nano-polycrystalline diamond anvils

Nano-polycrystalline diamond cubes with an edge length of 6 mm have been used as anvils for Kawai-type multianvil apparatus. The maximum pressure of ∼88 GPa was confirmed based on in situ X-ray diffraction measurements using nano-polycrystalline diamond anvils with a truncation of 1.0 mm, which is more than 50% higher than the pressure (∼56 GPa) achieved at the same press load using sintered-diamond anvils. The X-ray transparency of the nano-polycrystalline diamond anvil was found to be about 10–100 times as high as that of sintered-diamond anvils for a wide range of photon energies (∼30–130 keV), leading to high-quality X-ray imaging and diffraction profiles of the sample under pressure, even through the anvils. It is expected that further optimization of the pressure medium and gasket would lead to pressures far higher than 100 GPa without sacrificing the advantages of the multianvil apparatus over diamond anvil cells.     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S167498711400005X

Recalling some of the most important events and persons during his education and career, the author sketches his growth from a young engineer, educated in the sanctuary of solid state reactions, to an involved fully devoted scientific career for the study of fluids in the deep Earth. Most important in this respect was the discovery of C02 inclusions in granulites, which triggered years of discussion on fluid- absent or fluid-assisted granulite metamorphism. To some extent, this debate is a continuation of the former granite controversy, but it shows also how the famous battle of ＂soaks against pontiffs＂ could have been easily avoided.     

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.06.008

The mineral schreibersite, (Fe,Ni)₃P, provides a reactive source of phosphorus capable of forming phosphorylated molecules. These molecules may have been an important component of prebiotic chemistry, allowing their build-up and eventual commencement of autopoiesis. Discussed here are potential geochemical routes to providing schreibersite, as a potentially important prebiotic mineral, to the Hadean Earth. Two routes are identified: delivery of phosphides by meteoritic material and the reduction of phosphates to phosphides by high-temperature, low-redox conditions. About 1–10% of all crustal phosphorus is estimated to have been in schreibersite during the Hadean, making the long-term reaction of this mineral with organic-laden water plausible for many years. Ultimately, such conditions would have been conducive to the formation of life as we know it today.     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987112001065

It has been thought that granitic crust,having been formed on the surface,must have survived through the Earth’s evolution because of its buoyancy.At subduction zones continental crust is predominantly created by arc magmatism and is returned to the mantle via sediment subduction,subduction erosion, and continental subduction.Granitic rocks,the major constituent of the continental crust,are lighter than the mantle at depths shallower than 270 km,but we show here,based on first principles calculations, that beneath 270 km they have negative buoyancy compared to the surrounding material in the upper mantle and transition zone,and thus can be subducted in the depth range of 270-660 km.This suggests that there can be two reservoirs of granitic material in the Earth,one on the surface and the other at the base of the mantle transition zone(MTZ).The accumulated volume of subducted granitic material at the base of the MTZ might amount to about six times the present volume of the continental crust.Our calculations also show that the seismic velocities of granitic material in the depth range from 270 to 660 km are faster than those of the surrounding mantle.This could explain the anomalous seismic-wave velocities observed around 660 km depth.The observed seismic scatterers and reported splitting of the 660 km discontinuity could be due to jadeite dissociation,chemical discontinuities between granitic material and the surrounding mantle,or a combination thereof.     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987111000909

We have performed measurements of minerals based on the synchrotron source for single crystal and powder X-ray diffraction,inelastic scattering,spectroscopy and radiography by using diamond anvil cells.We investigated the properties of iron（Fe）,iron-magnesium oxides（Fe,Mg）O, silica（SiO₂）,iron-magnesium silicates（Fe,Mg）SiO₃ under simulated high pressure-high temperature extreme conditions of the Earth’s crust,upper mantle,low mantle,core-mantle boundary,outer core, and inner core.The results provide a new window on the investigation of the mineral properties at Earth’s conditions.     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987111000478

Convective heat transfer associated with the circulation of pore-fluid in porous rocks and fractures within the upper crust of the Earth is substantial when the temperature gradient is sufficiently high.In order to understand the process of Sn-polymetallic mineralization in the Dachang ore district of Guangxi,a finite element method has been used in this study to simulate both pore-fluid flow and heat transfer in this district.On the basis of related geological,tectonic and geophysical constraints,a computational model was established.It enables a computational simulation and sensitivity analysis to be carried out for investigating ore-forming pore-fluid flow and other key factors that may affect hydrothermal ore genesis in the district.The related simulation results have indicated that:(1) permeable fault zones in the Dachang ore district can serve as preferential pathways for pore-fluid flow on a regional-scale;and(2) the pore-fluid flow can affect the salinity distribution.This latter factor is part of the reason why Sn-polymetallic mineralization has taken place in this district.     

Phase transition of zircon at high P-T conditions

Abstract In situ observations of the zircon-reidite transition in ZrSiO₄ were carried out using a multianvil high-pressure apparatus and synchrotron radiation. The phase boundary between zircon and reidite was determined to be P (GPa) = 8.5+0.0017×(T-1200) (K) for temperatures between 1100–1900 K. When subducted slabs, including igneous rocks and sediments, descend into the upper mantle, the zircon in the subducted slab transforms into reidite at pressures of about 9 GPa, corresponding to a depth of 270 km. Reidite found in an upper Eocene impact ejecta layer in marine sediments is thought to have been transformed from zircon by a shock event. The peak pressure generated by the shock event in this occurrence is estimated to be higher than 8 GPa.Editorial responsibility: J. Hoefs