Progressive evolution and failure behavior of a Holocene river-damming landslide in the SE Tibetan Plateau,China

This paper presents a study on an ancient river-damming landslide in the SE Tibet Plateau, China, with a focus on time-dependent gravitational creep leading to slope failure associated with progressive fragmentation during motion. Field investigation shows that the landslide, with an estimated volume of 4.9?×?10⁷ m³, is a translational toe buckling slide. Outcrops of landslide deposits, buckling, toe shear, residual landslide dam, and lacustrine sediments are distributed at the slope base. The landslide deposits formed a landslide dam over 60 m high and at one time blocked the Jinsha River. Optically stimulated luminescence dating for the lacustrine sediments indicates that the landslide occurred at least 2,600 years ago. To investigate the progressive evolution and failure behavior of the landslide, numerical simulations using the distinct element method are conducted. The results show that the evolution of the landslide could be divided into three stages: a time-dependent gravitational creep process, rapid failure, and granular flow deposition. It probably began as a long-term gravitationally induced buckling of amphibolite rock slabs along a weak interlayer composed of mica schist which was followed by progressive fragmentation during flow-like motion, evolving into a flow-like movement, which deposited sediments in the river valley. According to numerical modeling results, the rapid failure stage lasted 35 s from the onset of sudden failure to final deposition, with an estimated maximum movement rate of 26.8 m/s. The simulated topography is close to the post-landslide topography. Based on field investigation and numerical simulation, it can be found that the mica schist interlayer and bedding planes are responsible for the slope instability, while strong toe erosion caused by the Jinsha River caused the layered rock mass to buckle intensively. Rainfall or an earthquake cannot be ruled out as a potential trigger of the landslide, considering the climate condition and the seismic activity on centennial to millennial timescales in the study area.

     

基于PFC2D的刘涧滑坡破坏运动过程模拟

以陕西省洛南县刘涧滑坡为研究对象,采用颗粒流离散元法对其破坏运动过程进行数值模拟。首先通过双轴数值试验对滑坡饱和土体进行细观参数标定,并与室内试验中饱和土体宏观力学参数进行对比,经验证该细观参数能应用到滑坡的破坏运动分析中,进而引入颗粒流（PFC2D）程序中平行黏结模型,采用ball-wall建模方法建立滑坡模型,对滑坡不同关键部位颗粒进行位移、速度监测,阐明其破坏运动特征。模拟结果表明,降雨为刘涧滑坡的直接诱发因素,斜坡变形破坏模式为由坡脚开挖引起的自前缘向后部牵引-孔隙水压力诱发的后部向前缘推移式滑塌。总体特征为上部推移,中部剪切,下部牵引;滑坡滑动最高时速13.4 m/s,最大滑移170 m,滑动阶段持续25 s。利用颗粒流法对滑坡的破坏运动过程模拟具有较好的适用性,可为工程决策提供依据。      

Analysis of time-varying rainfall infiltration induced landslide

A case study of rainstorm-induced landslide is modeled following the hourly rainfall time series from the stage of infiltration caused by induced slope movement and soil saturated to excess pore pressures—Transient Rainfall Infiltration and Grid-based Regional Slope-Stability Analysis (TRIGRS). The grid-based landslide stability analysis was conducted to model the increased pore pressures and runoff in the study area under the specified rainfall conditions. The generated time variances of pore pressures help determine landslide characteristics and mechanisms under rainfall conditions. Inputs of soil properties and permeability parameters for landslide stability analysis in the study area were prepared by TRIGRS adopted for transient infiltration analysis. Results of the analyses show that under heavy rainfall conditions, the infiltrated slope is unstable and the time of debris masses movement initiated is correlated to the recorded time. In the initiated landslide, characteristics and effects are considered and reflected in the numerical modeling under combinations of topography, land use, climatic and geological conditions. Results reveal that there is a plane failure surface and a potential circular failure surface at the study site besides the rock topple failures in the crest. A grid-based slope-stability analysis incorporated with the GIS spatial functions is more advantageous than the traditional two-dimensional analysis for specified slope profiles to determine the whole behavior of a slope.     

千将坪滑坡动力学过程仿真模拟

滑坡体的失稳破坏是一个动态过程,动力学行为起着非常重要的作用。采用DDA方法对长江三峡库区千将坪滑坡的运动全过程进行了数值模拟研究。模拟方案充分依据该滑坡的地质、地形特征,按不同岩土体和地质结构面类型进行块体单元划分,模拟了滑坡发生、发展的渐进破坏过程以及滑坡触发后的运动情况。模拟结果表明,千将坪滑坡是以斜坡坡脚的局部破坏为其运动的开始阶段,并进一步牵引上部滑体,在地下水压力作用下最终产生整体滑动。     

基于颗粒流方法的堆积层滑坡运动过程模拟

以颗粒流离散元为研究方法对勉县杨家湾十组堆积层滑坡破坏方式与运动过程进行数值模拟研究。通过PFC2D双轴模拟试验所标定的岩土体宏观模拟参数与室内试验所获取的宏观实测参数进行对比,确定堆积层滑坡所需的颗粒细观参数,然后将标定的细观参数代入堆积层滑坡模型,对滑坡破坏方式及运动过程进行模拟研究。结果表明:滑坡破坏在初始阶段蠕滑变形累积,滑坡体挤压坡脚,直至坡脚产生剪切破坏,并向上牵引发展,使得滑坡整体顺接触面破坏下滑并堆积于坡脚,表现为典型的牵引式渐进破坏,结果与实际情况基本吻合。研究认为,采用颗粒流方法对堆积层滑坡破坏与运动过程的模拟研究具有较高的适用性,对该类滑坡防治具有一定的参考意义。      

Failure processes in a full-scale landslide experiment using a rainfall simulator

A full-scale landslide experiment was conducted to clarify the failure process of a landslide triggered by rainfall, using a loose sandy soil. The experiment used a 23-m long and about 8-m high flume, consisting of three parts: an upper 30° slope section, a lower 10° slope section, and a horizontal section at the foot of the slope. The flume was sprinkled at a constant intensity of 100 mm/h. The landslide occurred first in the upper slope about 154 min after the sprinkling started, following a creep movement within 41 min. The sliding mass slid to a stop in about 5 s, compressing soils in the lower gentle slope and horizontal sections. The dynamic process related to slide movement and the fluctuation of subsurface water pressures during failure were measured and analyzed. Sequential visual observations provided a clear record of the slip surface during failure. The rapid increase of subsurface water pressure in the slope and horizontal soil layers was also recorded during failure. It was inferred that the increased water pressures in the upper slope resulted from collapse of loose soil structure during shearing in the translational slide, whereas those in the lower portion of the slope and horizontal sections resulted from a mix of soil compression and shearing by the sliding mass.     

基于PFC3D的鱼鳅坡滑坡运动过程分析

以贵州省开阳县鱼鳅坡滑坡为研究对象,采用颗粒流离散元（PFC3D）对其破坏运动过程进行数值模拟。采用Ball-Wall建模方法建立滑坡模型,对滑坡不同关键部位颗粒进行位移、速度监测,阐明其破坏运动特征。结果表明,降雨为鱼鳅坡滑坡的直接诱发因素。该滑坡在破坏初始阶段以蠕滑变形为主,随着变形量的增加,滑坡体不断挤压坡脚,滑坡岩土体到达应力平衡极限,坡脚产生剪切破坏,并向上牵引发展,滑坡发生整体滑动,斜坡变形破坏模式为蠕滑-拉裂,按照力学条件为牵引式破坏。滑坡滑动最高时速12.4 m/s,最大滑移80 m,滑动阶段持续50 s。研究成果可为对该类滑坡影响范围预测,以及工程措施的制定具有一定的参考意义。     

Evaluation of potential landslide damming: Case study of Urni landslide,Kinnaur, Satluj valley,India

This work aims to understand the process of potential landslide damming using slope failure mechanism,dam dimension and dam stability evaluation. The Urni landslide, situated on the right bank of the Satluj River, Himachal Pradesh(India) is taken as the case study. The Urni landslide has evolved into a complex landslide in the last two decade(2000-2016) and has dammed the Satluj River partially since year 2013,damaging ～200 m stretch of the National Highway(NH-05). The crown of the landslide exists at an altitude of ～2180-2190 m above msl, close to the Urni village that has a human population of about 500.The high resolution imagery shows ～50 m long landslide scarp and ～100 m long transverse cracks in the detached mass that implies potential for further slope failure movement. Further analysis shows that the landslide has attained an areal increase of 103,900 ± 1142 m^2 during year 2004-2016. About 86% of this areal increase occurred since year 2013. Abrupt increase in the annual mean rainfall is also observed since the year 2013. The extreme rainfall in the June, 2013; 11 June(～100 mm) and 16 June(～115 mm),are considered to be responsible for the slope failure in the Urni landslide that has partially dammed the river. The finite element modelling(FEM) based slope stability analysis revealed the shear strain in the order of 0.0-0.16 with 0.0-0.6 m total displacement in the detachment zone. Further, kinematic analysis indicated planar and wedge failure condition in the jointed rockmass. The debris flow runout simulation of the detached mass in the landslide showed a velocity of ～25 m/s with a flow height of ～15 m while it(debris flow) reaches the valley floor. Finally, it is also estimated that further slope failure may detach as much as 0.80 ±0.32 million m^3 mass that will completely dam the river to a height of 76±30 m above the river bed.     

Analysis of an anti-dip landslide triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China

The Guantan landslide, with a total displaced mass of about 468 × 10⁴ m³, was triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake and succeeding rainfall in Jushui Town, Sichuan Province, China. The landslide occurred on an anti-dip hard rock slope with a weak rock founding stratum of 200 m in thickness. To investigate the failure mechanism of the Guantan landslide, dynamic behaviors of hard and soft rock slopes were investigated by means of large scale shaking table tests. The laboratory models attempted to simulate the field geological conditions of the Guantan landslide. Sinusoidal waves and actual seismic waves measured from the Wenchuan Earthquake were applied on the slope models under 37 loading configurations. The experimental results indicated that deformation mainly developed at a shallow depth in the upper part of the hard rock slope and in the upper (near the crest) and lower (near the toe) parts of the soft rock slope. An equation for predicting the depth of sliding plane was proposed based on the location of the maximum horizontal acceleration. Finally, it was concluded that the failure process of the Guantan landslide occurred in three stages: (1) toppling failure caused by compression of the underlying soft rock strata, (2) formation of crushed hard rock and sliding surface in soft rock as the result of seismic shocks, particularly in the horizontal direction, and (3) aftershock rainfall accelerates the process of mass movement along the sliding plane.     

基于GIS空间数据的滑坡SPH粒子模型研究

针对光滑粒子流体动力学方法（SPH）在滑坡模拟中建立粒子模型的难题,提出了基于地理信息系统（GIS）栅格数据的粒子排列与插入方法。根据该方法,建立了滑坡SPH粒子模型及相关粒子生成程序,进一步以结合摩尔-库仑破坏准则的SPH宾汉流体模型为核心,实现了运用SPH方法模拟滑坡破坏后三维运动的过程。该SPH模型在对唐家山滑坡的模拟中得到了验证,并预测了金坪子滑坡破坏后的影响范围。结果表明：基于GIS空间数据的滑坡SPH粒子模型具有可行性与良好的适用性。以GIS数据库为基础,开展滑坡灾害的模拟研究,将大大提高对滑坡等地质灾害的仿真分析,为滑坡灾害的预测与防治提供参考。     

基于连续介质模型的滑坡启动机理数值模拟试验

滑坡启动机理研究是滑坡防治的前提条件。应用三维连续介质动态数值模型方法,采用摩擦模型、Voellmy模型2种流变模型,对滑坡启动过程进行分析求解,开展滑坡启动机理数值模拟研究。结果表明,不论是限制坡面(渠道型)还是无限制坡面,在2种流变模型和侵蚀率下,随着坡度逐渐增加,地形所提供给滑坡体的能量进一步增大,物质运动距离进一步增加,其相应的平均速度、最大速度(前端速度)和总动能也会进一步加大,经历了从缓慢蠕变至快速增加的过程。根据不同坡度下滑坡的启动、运动规律、堆积过程及各坡度下动力参数延程变化规律,可以将滑坡的启动坡度设定为25°~30°。该滑坡启动坡度的设定可为地质灾害防治措施和监测预警提供技术参考。     

降雨诱发堆积体滑坡水土响应与稳定性时空演化试验研究

降雨在松散堆积土中入渗引起内部水土力学的变化是影响稳定性的关键。目前研究多侧重考虑颗粒粒径、含量等因素对斜坡破坏的影响,但是针对斜坡体内部水土响应及稳定性时空演化方面的研究存在不足。基于野外滑坡案例,通过室内降雨滑坡模型试验、土力学试验和理论分析手段,研究了降雨触发松散堆积体斜坡变形破坏过程及模式,采用Van Genuchten模型（VG模型）重构了土体的土-水特征曲线,重点探究了斜坡内部水土力学变化以及稳定性时空演化规律。结果表明：（1）堆积体斜坡破坏经历了微裂隙发育-局部破坏-整体破坏3个阶段,呈现出“初期拉裂-坡面坍塌-塑性滑动”的破坏模式;（2）入渗过程斜坡体积含水率以及孔隙水压力急速增加,而土颗粒之间基质吸力下降甚至消散,促进了斜坡破坏发展;（3）土体力学强度随体积含水率升高呈指数下降,体积含水率为36.3%时,有效黏聚力和有效内摩擦角仅为0.27 kPa、3.39°;（4）基于极限平衡理论和斜坡土水特征监测数据,构建了斜坡稳定性时空演化图谱,与模型试验破坏特征有较好的一致性。研究结果对降雨作用下的堆积层斜坡监测预警与防灾减灾提供理论支撑。     

马边滑坡运动特征及冲击强度的数值研究

滑坡运动堆积特征及其冲击强度研究对滑坡风险定量评估具有重要意义。通过对四川乐山市马边滑坡基本特征调查,利用支持向量机模型(SVM)和颗粒流方法(PFC),对滑坡岩土体细观强度参数进行反演和标定,结合UAV数据生成滑坡区高精度DEM,在此基础上,重构马边滑坡三维颗粒流数值模型,模拟并研究滑坡的运动堆积和冲击过程。结果表明:马边滑坡运动时长32 s,主滑时间16 s,运动开始5 s后速度达到峰值,为10.2 m/s;滑坡中后部岩土体运动迹线为直线型,中前部运动迹线成扩散状态,最终呈扇形堆积;滑坡在坡脚处的冲击力可达1.5×109 N,并随着坡脚距的增大,冲击力呈现出指数衰减特征。研究结果与滑坡运动过程实际视频解译结果及堆积现状基本一致,相关研究方法为滑坡定量风险评估提供借鉴。      

基于三维非连续变形分析的巨石崩塌运动研究

巨石作为一种大体积、大质量的滚石,其崩塌失稳及高速、高能远程运动往往导致沿途建筑物和交通线路的毁灭性灾难。以西藏自治区G318国道K4580典型滑坡为工程背景,基于三维非连续变形分析（three-dimensional discontinuous deformation analysis,简称3D-DDA）方法研究巨石崩塌失稳及运动全过程的特征与现象。分别建立该边坡未滑坡、浅层滑坡后和深层滑坡后3种坡形的巨石崩塌3D-DDA数值模型。采用滚石运动横向偏移经验模型,验证3D-DDA巨石运动模拟的准确性。在此基础上,分析巨石崩塌失稳机制及破坏后沿3种不同坡形边坡的运动轨迹和动能演进等运动特征。结果表明,3D-DDA能够有效模拟巨石崩塌失稳、运动发展、剧烈冲击碰撞直至最终静止等整个动力学过程。巨石崩塌表现为滑动→倾倒?滑动→倾倒→翻转?下落的失稳模式转换;巨石运动表现为碰撞、弹跳、飞跃、滚动、滑动等多种运动形式以及横向偏移、侧向偏转等三维空间运动特征,经过道路并与高架桥发生碰撞,引发巨石灾害。不同坡面几何特征下的巨石运动偏移量、弹跳高度、运动至坡底碰撞时间、最终稳定时间等均随着未滑坡、浅层滑坡后、深层滑坡后3种坡形变化而减小。通过3D-DDA巨石崩塌运动分析,预测巨石运动全过程、影响范围、冲击能量、停积位置等,可为巨石防灾减灾对策或措施制定提供依据。     

Understanding the triggering mechanism and possible kinematic evolution of a reactivated landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir

More than 5000 landslides or potential landslides have been induced in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) region since the impoundment in 2003, which have caused great damage and remain a huge threat to the dam and people living in the reservoir area. Understanding the deformation characteristics and failure mechanism of the landslides can be helpful in stability evaluation and landslide prediction. The primary aim of this study is to research the characteristics of the landslide motion and its relationships with environmental triggers, taking the Quchi landslide, a large, slow-moving, reactivated landslide in the TGR region, as an example. The instability clearly showed visible signs of movements since 2002, and after that, the slope has been experiencing persistent deformation. By combining 4 years of meteorological, hydrological data with displacement measurements from open fractures, deep boreholes, and surface points, as well as in situ observations, this paper reports the geological and geotechnical investigations performed to define the movement. The deformation is believed to be governed by reservoir water levels, while the precipitation has a minor effect. Seasonally, the slope movement has a very distinctive pattern with large deformation starting abruptly right after reservoir drawdown in June and lasting into late summer (September). Then there is a rapid transition to constant deformation (almost no displacement) as the reservoir level rises. The slope displacements appear to gradually increase every year, which suggests very high possibility of the large and overall failure of the slide. Both monitoring results and geomorphological observations have highlighted that the two active slide masses Q1 and Q2 would probably collapse in different kinematic evolution modes, i.e., the multistage failure and whole sliding motion.     

Numerical simulation of landslide dam breaching due to overtopping

The breach of landslide dam often causes significant disaster in the inundated area; the prediction of breach hydrograph is in high demand for the dam breach risk evaluation. In this study, according to the model tests and Tangjiashan landslide dam breach case, the surface erosion accompanied by intermittent mass failure is known as the key breaching mechanism for landslide dam due to overtopping failure. The downstream slope angle would gradually decrease during the dam-breaching process, whereas a planar wedge failure occurs when the breach slopes at the dam crest and downstream breach channel fail. Based on the breach mechanism, a numerical model for landslide dam breach due to overtopping is developed to simulate the coupling process of water and soil. The model focuses on the breach morphology evolution during the breaching for the sake of the improvement of breach hydrograph prediction. Furthermore, the model can handle one- and two-sided breach, as well as incomplete and base erosion at the vertical direction. The case study of Tangjiashan landslide dam-breaching feedback analysis testifies the rationality of the present model with the relative errors less than 10% for peak discharge, final breach widths, and time to peak. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the final breach depth and soil erodibility affect the breach flow prediction of the landslide dam significantly, whereas the one- or two-sided breach mode is less sensitive.     

Dynamic process analysis for the initiation and movement of the Donghekou landslide-debris flow triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake

The Donghekou landslide-debris flow was a remarkable geological disaster triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake in 2008. The dynamic process of a rapid landslide-debris flow is very complicated and can be divided into two aspects: the slope dynamic response of the earthquake and the mass movement and accumulation process. A numerical method combined with a finite difference method (FDM) and discrete element method (DEM) for simulation of landslide-debris flow under seismic loading is presented. The FDM and DEM are coupled through the critical sliding surface, initiation time and velocity. The dynamic response of the slope is simulated by the finite difference method, and critical sliding surface is determined using the earthquake response spectrum method. The landslide initiation time and the velocity are determined by time–history analysis. The mass movement and accumulation process is simulated using the discrete element method. Simulation results demonstrate that the maximum amplification coefficient of dynamic acceleration for the Donghekou slope is approximately 3.909, the initiation time of landslide is approximately 6.0 s, and the average initial velocity of the sliding mass is approximately 0.85 m/s. The failure of the slope is the result of elevation-orientated amplification effect and the sliding mass triggered with a small initial velocity. The numerical simulated result of the maximum sliding velocity is approximately 66.35 m/s, and the mass is disintegrated rapidly because of collision and free fall. The landslide velocity decreases when the flowing mass reaches a lower slope angle and gradually comes to a stop, and the total travel distance is approximately 2400 m.     

考虑滑坡渐进破坏的改进简布条分法

为考虑位移因素对于滑坡渐进性发育的影响,基于简布条分法基本原理,提出一个新的能够考虑滑带土抗剪能力与剪切位移关系的滑坡稳定性简化评价方法。该方法从以下两个方面对简布条分法进行了改进：（1）将滑动面剪应力-剪切位移本构模型与沿滑动面的剪切位移模型相结合,以考虑滑坡随着变形发展渐进破坏的过程;（2）提出局部安全系数的概念并对整体安全系数进行重新定义,物理意义更加明确。推导了该方法的计算公式,给出了其迭代计算思路,并编制Matlab计算程序。通过计算实例表明,应变软化边坡的安全系数不仅取决于土的抗剪强度指标,还与其剪应力-剪切位移关系密切相关,基于峰值强度的极限平衡条分法应用于实际工程是偏于危险的。同时该方法还可以有效地模拟边坡从开始破坏到最终滑动面贯通的发育过程,实现了坡体位移与安全系数之间一一对应的定量关系,进而实现边坡的稳定性的预测预报。     

Spatial risk analysis of Li-shan landslide in Taiwan

By coupling limit equilibrium analysis and Monte Carlo analysis with a geography information system (GIS), this study implements a method that can evaluate the risk (corresponding to probability of failure in this study) of landslide with consideration of spatial uncertainties. The GIS can adopt the three-dimensional information including surface topography, underground geomaterial distribution and groundwater level to determine slope profiles for analysis. Then the safety of defined slope can be evaluated by limit equilibrium analysis. In this study, the mechanical properties of geomaterial were considered as random variables instead of single values. The slope and groundwater profiles are also randomly adopted. Through a Monte Carlo sampling process, a distribution of safety factor and probability of failure can be determined. This probabilistic risk analysis approach was applied to Li-shan landslide in Central Taiwan.

Due to heavy rains, the sites near the highway 7A (mileage 73 k + 150) and the highway 8 (mileage 82 k) in the Li-shan Township began to subside in mid April 1990. Topography, geology, and groundwater condition of this area were first reviewed. Based on this review, together with field investigations and a series of limit equilibrium back analyses, a general hypothetic model was established to illustrate the failure mechanism of this landslide area. Then the developed probabilistic risk analysis model is applied to spatially evaluate the risk of this landslide area as well as the performance of the remediation treatment.     

滑坡位移的多模态支持向量机模型预测

将支持向量机（support vector machine,SVM）方法与信号分析中的经验模态分解（empirical mode decomposition, EMD）方法相匹配,提出了一种通过多模态支持向量机函数回归分析建模预测滑坡位移的理论方法。以边坡位移历史观测数据为基础,应用EMD方法获得滑坡形成过程中位移演化的几个特征时间模态,构成了多模态信息统计学习样本,确定了边坡位移演化的自适应多尺度变化信息。对应于每个经验模态的位移变化信息,引入了多模态SVM建模方法,然后合成不同经验模态下边坡位移的计算结果,得到滑坡位移的预测值。以卧龙寺新滑坡和新滩滑坡的监测数据为基础的理论预测结果表明,与采用遗传算法的神经网络方法的预测结果相比,支持向量机经验模态方法具有更强的预测能力,理论预测结果与实际监测值具有很好的一致性