Mitigating the Effects of Climate Change on the Water Resources of the Columbia River Basin

The potential effects of climate change on the hydrology and water resources of the Columbia River Basin (CRB) were evaluated using simulations from the U.S. Department of Energy and National Center for Atmospheric Research Parallel Climate Model (DOE/NCAR PCM). This study focuses on three climate projections for the 21st century based on a `business as usual' (BAU) global emissions scenario, evaluated with respect to a control climate scenario based on static 1995 emissions. Time-varying monthly PCM temperature and precipitation changes were statistically downscaled and temporally disaggregated to produce daily forcings that drove a macro-scale hydrologic simulation model of the Columbia River basin at 1/4-degree spatial resolution. For comparison with the direct statistical downscaling approach, a dynamical downscaling approach using a regional climate model (RCM) was also used to derive hydrologic model forcings for 20-year subsets from the PCM control climate (1995–2015) scenario and from the three BAU climate(2040–2060) projections. The statistically downscaled PCM scenario results were assessed for three analysis periods (denoted Periods 1–3: 2010–2039,2040–2069, 2070–2098) in which changes in annual average temperature were +0.5,+1.3 and +2.1 °C, respectively, while critical winter season precipitation changes were –3, +5 and +1 percent. For RCM, the predicted temperature change for the 2040–2060 period was +1.2 °C and the average winter precipitation change was –3 percent, relative to the RCM controlclimate. Due to the modest changes in winter precipitation, temperature changes dominated the simulated hydrologic effects by reducing winter snow accumulation, thus shifting summer streamflow to the winter. The hydrologic changes caused increased competition for reservoir storage between firm hydropower and instream flow targets developed pursuant to the Endangered Species Act listing of Columbia River salmonids. We examined several alternative reservoir operating policies designed to mitigate reservoir system performance losses. In general, the combination of earlier reservoir refill with greater storage allocations for instream flow targets mitigated some of the negative impacts to flow, but only with significant losses in firm hydropower production (ranging from –9 percent in Period1 to –35 percent for RCM). Simulated hydropower revenue changes were lessthan 5 percent for all scenarios, however, primarily due to small changes inannual runoff.     

全球气候变化对水文与水资源的影响

介绍了国内外全球气候变化对水文与水资源影响研究的现状与进展,简述了研究气候变化对水文与水资源影响的方法,指出了研究中存在的问题,分析了未来研究的发展趋势。     

Potential Implications of PCM Climate Change Scenarios for Sacramento–San Joaquin River Basin Hydrology and Water Resources

The potential effects of climate change on the hydrology and water resources of the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Basin were evaluated using ensemble climate simulations generated by the U.S. Department of Energy and National Center for Atmospheric Research Parallel Climate Model (DOE/NCAR PCM). Five PCM scenarios were employed. The first three were ensemble runs from 1995–2099 with a `business as usual' global emissions scenario, eachwith different atmospheric initializations. The fourth was a `control climate'scenario with greenhouse gas emissions set at 1995 levels and run through 2099. The fifth was a historical climate simulation forced with evolving greenhouse gas concentrations from 1870–2000, from which a 50-yearportion is taken for use in bias-correction of the other runs. From these global simulations, transient monthly temperature and precipitation sequences were statistically downscaled to produce continuous daily hydrologic model forcings, which drove a macro-scale hydrology model of theSacramento–San Joaquin River Basins at a 1/8-degree spatial resolution, and produceddaily streamflow sequences for each climate scenario. Each streamflow scenario was used in a water resources system model that simulated current and predicted future performance of the system. The progressive warming of the PCM scenarios (approximately 1.2 °C at midcentury, and 2.2 °C by the 2090s), coupled with reductions in winter and spring precipitation (from 10 to 25%), markedly reduced late spring snowpack (by as much as half on average by the end of the century). Progressive reductions in winter, spring, and summer streamflow were less severe in the northern part of the study domain than in the south, where a seasonality shift was apparent. Results from the water resources system model indicate that achieving and maintaining status quo (control scenario climate) system performance in the future would be nearly impossible, given the altered climate scenario hydrologies. The most comprehensive of the mitigation alternatives examined satisfied only 87–96% of environmental targets in the Sacramento system, and less than 80% in the San Joaquin system. It is evident that demand modification and system infrastructure improvements will be required to account for the volumetric and temporal shifts in flows predicted to occur with future climates in the Sacramento–San JoaquinRiver basins.     

气候变化和人类活动对石羊河流域水资影响评价

石羊河流域的年平均气温(最高、最低气温)自1951年以来总体呈上升趋势,增温速率为0.22℃/10a,增幅达1.2℃。1992年是年平均气温显著变暖的年份,与显著变暖前相比,年平均气温上升了0.85℃,低于近51年1.1℃的增幅水平。在近55年中,石羊河流域的年降水总体上在增加,出山口径流量在减少,流域尾闾民勤绿洲的地下水位在快速下降。气温显著变暖后,年降水量增加了约18.2 mm,增幅达5.8%,出山口径流量减少了4.1×108m3,民勤绿洲的地下水位下降了1倍~2倍。水资源变化的成因分析表明,出山口径流量的减少源自径流补充之一的上游山区降水的减少,而红崖山水库入库径流量的持续快速减少则是民勤地下水位快速下降的主要原因之一。受气候变化的影响,石羊河流域出山口径流量峰期有所提前,而人类活动严重地影响了石羊河流域中游地表径流利用量和下游可利用量分配比例。     

兰江流域近43年气候变化及对水资源的影响

利用累积距平法对兰江流域近43年（1961-2003年）气温、降水量和径流量资料进行分析,研究兰江流域气候变化及其气候变化对水资源的影响。结果显示：兰江流域近43年来气温、降水量总的趋势是上升的;1990年代是兰江流域气温上升和降水增加最显著的时段,主要表现在冬春气温明显上升,夏季降水量明显增加：兰江流域年径流深与年降水量基本保持同步变化。兰江流域过去43年的气候变化对流域内水资源产生了较大的影响,而且由于兰江流域内水资源空间分布差异较大,致使流域内人均水资源占有量较少的金华地区易受气候变化影响而出现供水紧张。     

Climate Change and Water Resources

Current perspectives on global climate change based on recent reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are presented. Impacts of a greenhouse warming that are likely to affect water planning and evaluation include changes in precipitation and runoff patterns, sea level rise, land use and population shifts following from these effects, and changes in water demands. Irrigation water demands are particularly sensitive to changes in precipitation, temperature, and carbon dioxide levels. Despite recent advances in climate change science, great uncertainty remains as to how and when climate will change and how these changes will affect the supply and demand for water at the river basin and watershed levels, which are of most interest to planners. To place the climate-induced uncertainties in perspective, the influence on the supply and demand for water of non-climate factors such as population, technology, economic conditions, social and political factors, and the values society places on alternative water uses are considered.     

气候变化对黄河流域水资源影响研究进展

20世纪90年代以来,黄河流域天然径流量大幅减少,水资源供需矛盾已经成为制约流域社会经济可持续发展的重大问题.本文概述了国内外气候变化对流域水文水资源影响的研究进展;论述了气候变化对黄河流域水文水资源影响研究的方法、结果和最新进展及黄河流域气候变化对水资源影响研究的问题.建议今后加强基础数据和资料的分析研究,建立适合黄河流域的多情景综合气候评价模型;提高黄河流域极端气象水文事件预测能力,为流域水资源管理和综合规划服务.     

The Effects of Climate Change on Water Resources in the West: Introduction and Overview

The results of an experimental `end to end' assessment of the effects of climate change on water resources in the western United States are described. The assessment focuses on the potential effects of climate change over the first half of the 21st century on the Columbia, Sacramento/San Joaquin, and Colorado river basins. The paper describes the methodology used for the assessment, and it summarizes the principal findings of the study. The strengths and weaknesses of this study are discussed, and suggestions are made for improving future climate change assessments.     

Impact of Climate Change on Hydrological Regimes and Water Resources Management in the Rhine Basin

The International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine basin (CHR) hascarried out a researchproject to assess the impact of climate change on the river flow conditionsin the Rhine basin. Along abottom-up line, different detailed hydrological models with hourly and dailytime steps have beendeveloped for representative sub-catchments of the Rhine basin. Along atop-down line, a water balancemodel for the entire Rhine basin has been developed, which calculates monthlydischarges and which wastested on the scale of the major tributaries of the Rhine. Using this set ofmodels, the effects of climatechange on the discharge regime in different parts of the Rhine basin werecalculated using the results ofUKHI and XCCC GCM-experiments. All models indicate the same trends in thechanges: higher winterdischarge as a result of intensified snow-melt and increased winterprecipitation, and lower summerdischarge due to the reduced winter snow storage and an increase ofevapotranspiration. When the resultsare considered in more detail, however, several differences show up. These canfirstly be attributed todifferent physical characteristics of the studied areas, but different spatialand temporal scales used in themodelling and different representations of several hydrological processes(e.g., evapotranspiration,snow melt) are responsible for the differences found as well. Climate changecan affect various socio-economicsectors. Higher temperatures may threaten winter tourism in the lower wintersport areas. The hydrologicalchanges will increase flood risk during winter, whilst low flows during summerwill adversely affectinland navigation, and reduce water availability for agriculture and industry.Balancing the required actionsagainst economic cost and the existing uncertainties in the climate changescenarios, a policy of `no-regretand flexibility' in water management planning and design is recommended, whereanticipatory adaptivemeasures in response to climate change impacts are undertaken in combinationwith ongoing activities.     

气候变化对黄河上游水文的影响

利用月水量平衡模型,采取假定的气候方案,分析了黄河上游水文对气候变化的响应。结果表明：降水变化对上游水文影响较在,气温影响相对较小,在气温不变、降不减少１０％的情况下,年径流量和土壤含水量分别减少１２％和６．９％,若降水不变、气温升高１℃时,则二者将分别减少４．３％和５．１％左右;汛期径流量和土壤含水量对气候变化的响应较非汛期强烈。     

Climate Change and Water Resources in Britain

This paper explores the potential implications of climate change for the use and management of water resources in Britain. It is based on a review of simulations of changes in river flows, groundwater recharge and river water quality. These simulations imply, under feasible climate change scenarios, that annual, winter and summer runoff will decrease in southern Britain, groundwater recharge will be reduced and that water quality – as characterised by nitrate concentrations and dissolved oxygen contents – will deteriorate. In northern Britain, river flows are likely to increase throughout the year, particularly in winter. Climate change may lead to increased demands for water, over and above that increase which is forecast for non-climatic reasons, primarily due to increased use for garden watering. These increased pressures on the water resource base will impact not only upon the reliability of water supplies, but also upon navigation, aquatic ecosystems, recreation and power generation, and will have implications for water quality management. Flood risk is likely to increase, implying a reduction in standards of flood protection. The paper discusses adaptation options.     

Variations of Terrestrial Water Storage in the Yangtze River Basin under Climate Change Scenarios

In this study, the water balance-based Precipitation-Evapotranspiration-Runoff (PER) method combined with the land surface model Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) was used to estimate the spatiotemporal variations of terrestrial water storage (TWS) for two periods, 1982–2005 (baseline) and 2071–2100, under future climate scenarios A2 and B2 in the Yangtze River basin. The results show that the estimated TWS during the baseline period and under the two future climate scenarios have similar seasonal amplitudes of 60–70 mm. The higher values of TWS appear in June during the baseline period and under the B2 scenario, whereas the TWS under A2 shows two peaks in response to the related precipitation pattern. It also shows that the TWS is recharged from February to June during the baseline period, but it is replenished from March to June under the A2 and B2 scenarios. An analysis of the standard derivation of seasonal and interannual TWS time series under the three scenarios demonstrates that the seasonal TWS of the southeastern part of the Yangtze River basin varies remarkably and that the southeastern and central parts of the basin have higher variations in interannual TWS. With respect to the first mode of the Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF), the inverse-phase change in seasonal TWS mainly appears across the Guizhou-Sichuan-Shaanxi belt, and the entire basin generally represents a synchronous change in interannual TWS. As a whole, the TWS under A2 presents a larger seasonal variation whereas that under B2 displays a greater interannual variation. These results imply that climate change could trigger severe disasters in the southeastern and central parts of the basin.     

松花江流域气候变化及ECHAM5模式预估

 根据松花江流域1961-2000年观测气温、降水量资料和ECHAM5/MPI-OM模式对该流域21世纪前50 a气候变化的预估结果,分析了松花江流域1961-2000年年平均气温和年降水量变化,并对21世纪前50 a气温和降水量变化趋势进行了预估。结果表明,在全球变暖的背景下,作为中国气候变暖区域响应的先锋,松花江流域年平均气温自1980年代初持续升高,升温幅度比较显著;年降水量在1961-2000年无明显增加或减少趋势,年代际差异也不大。相对于1961-1990年的气候场,21世纪前半叶,年平均气温仍将呈明显增加趋势,到2040年代升温幅度达1℃以上,年降水量变化趋势不显著,可能微弱增加,但冬季平均气温和冬季降水量都呈增加趋势,春季降水量也为增加趋势。     

未来气候变化对黄河流域水文过程的影响

使用NASA/NCAR有限区域大气环流模型FvGCM结果驱动高分辨率区域气候模式RegCM3 (20 km),进行1961～1990年当代气候模拟(控制试验)和2071～2100年IPCC A2排放情景下未来气候模拟(A2情景模拟试验)。将RegCM3径流模拟结果同大尺度汇流模型LRM [分辨率0.25°(纬度)×0.25°(经度)]相连接,模拟预估未来气候变化对我国黄河流域水文过程的影响。结果表明:相对于当代气候,未来黄河流域呈现气温升高、降水增加(夏季7～8月降水减少)和蒸发增大的趋势,且空间分布极不均匀,造成河川径流在5～10月减少,加剧流域夏季的水资源短缺;未来气温升高使得融雪径流增加,可能导致更早和更大的春季径流,使径流过程发生季节性迁移,引起黄河流域水资源年内分配发生变化。     

气候变化对黄河上游水资源系统影响的研究进展

介绍了近年来在气候变暖对黄河上游水资源情势变化影响方面的研究成果和进展。这些研究表明,由于黄河上游所处的特殊地理位置和脆弱的区域生态环境,使其形成具有独特的水文水资源系统。这个系统对气候变化十分敏感,且表现为对降水的敏感性远大于气温。黄河上游的天然地表径流量随降水的增加而增加,随气温的升高而减少。随着温度持续上升,黄河上游21世纪水循环的演变趋势呈现为蒸发量增加,径流量进一步减少。一般来讲,随着气温升高,海洋和陆地蒸发量增加,大气中的水汽含量增加,全球降水量总体上增加,黄河上游降水增加的概率加大;但由于增加的幅度有限,加之随气温上升而增加的蒸发量不仅在很大程度上抵消了降水的可能增加,还将在一定程度上造成水资源量的减少。未来黄河上游水资源形势依然不容乐观,必须通过如南水北调工程等各种途径来解决我国西北和华北的水资源问题,以减缓和适应气候变化所带来的不利影响。     

Water Resources Planning and Climate Change Assessment Methods

This paper, which provides background for other papers in the volume, first reviews the nature and development of water resources planning and evaluation criteria at the Federal level in the United States. These criteria constitute a highly developed, complex set of guidelines for project planning and evaluation. The level of development of these criteria and their long historical development from theoretical foundations must be taken into account in relating global climate change to possible changes in planning criteria. Second, the essentials of water project planning and evaluation, including benefit-cost principles and more complex concepts of social decision-making, are outlined. Third, the paper provides an overview of global climate change assessment methods, including impact assessment and integrated assessment. Impact assessment uses a relatively straightforward comparison of with and without situations; integrated assessment attempts to improve on impact assessment by developing more complex models that incorporate a range of feedbacks and interrelationships.     

Stochastic Hydrology in the Context of Climate Change

Hydrologic trends, real (physical) or perceived (statistical), suggest that water management be predicated on the assumption of hydrologic nonstationarity. The assumption leaves open the question to what extent will the "trends" be sustained locally and regionally over the future 25, 50 or 100 years corresponding to the economic time horizons of water projects. Whether hydrologic trends are real or perceived, record events of hydrologic extremes, floods and droughts, will be broken with exceedingly high probabilities over the economic lives of water projects. Before the assumption of hydrologic nonstationarity is accepted, the ability to cope with the uncertain impacts of global warming on water management via the operational assumption of hydrologic stationarity should be carefully examined. In the absence of strong physical evidence, trends cannot be unequivocally distinguished from slow oscillations. Slow oscillations can be mimicked by persistence in stationary processes. It is time to examine the relative merits of the assumptions of stationarity and nonstationarity in the operational context of water management. The strategy of wait-and-see, i.e. delaying the making of important, expensive and essentially irreversible capital investments, could served water managers well in coping with the uncertainties regarding climate change.     

Responses and Thresholds of the Egyptian Economy to Climate Change Impacts on the Water Resources of the Nile River

Are there "thresholds" in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations above which associated climate change impacts become economically, socially or environmentally unacceptable? If thresholds exist, then emissions might be limited in such a way that GHG concentrations are not exceeded. Environmental, social, and economic systems should be examined in order to determine these threshold levels. This paper addressed the potential impacts of climate change on the water resources of the Nile River and associated impacts on the Egyptian economy through the use of a recursively dynamic general equilibrium model. The model was used to examine both economy-wide and sectoral impacts, and impacts on social and national policy indicators under various economic growth and climate change scenarios. Macro-economic indicators such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) showed that strict economic thresholds, characterized by discontinuities in the response function, did not occur. This was because autonomous economic adjustments generated a smooth socioeconomic transition over the 70-year simulation period. The economy underwent a gradual structural transformation, as capital and resources were moved from cropped agricultural to both the livestock and the non-agricultural sectors. Under "wet" climate scenarios, surplus water beyond 75 billion cubic meters (BCM) remained unused, as the marginal value of water dropped to zero and other resource constraints limited agricultural growth. For drier scenarios (below 75 BCM), water was a constraint to agricultural production into the 21 ^st century, as resources were diverted to less water demanding crops and the livestock and non-agricultural sectors. The reduced water scenarios showed agriculture declining in its total share of GDP, burdening the agricultural wage earner. Egypt increased its dependence on imports to meet food demand, dramatically decreasing grain self-sufficiency, while increasing protein self-sufficiency. If national policy requires a certain level of food self-sufficiency, then these metrics could be used in defining policy-based thresholds.     

气候变化条件下水资源短缺的状况及适应性措施：海河流域的模拟分析

 运用中国科学院农业政策研究中心开发的中国水资源模型,模拟分析了气候变化条件下海河流域的水资源短缺状况及相应的适应性措施的有效性。结果表明：随着社会经济的发展,到2030年海河流域的水资源短缺比例将提高25%,气候变化将使水资源短缺比例进一步提高2%～4%。无论是供给管理还是需求管理的适应性措施,在缓解水资源短缺方面都具有一定的有效性。但是,多标准的评估结果表明,所分析的几种需求管理的适应性措施比供给管理的适应性措施的可行性更高。在需求管理中,采用既提高灌溉水价又提高工业水价的混合水价政策可能是最优的策略选择,采用农业节水技术为次优策略选择。     

气候变化条件下水资源短缺的状况及适应性措施：海河流域的模拟分析

运用中国科学院农业政策研究中心开发的中国水资源模型,模拟分析了气候变化条件下海河流域的水资源短缺状况及相应的适应性措施的有效性。结果表明：随着社会经济的发展,到2030年海河流域的水资源短缺比例将提高25%,气候变化将使水资源短缺比例进一步提高2%～4%。无论是供给管理还是需求管理的适应性措施,在缓解水资源短缺方面都具有一定的有效性。但是,多标准的评估结果表明,所分析的几种需求管理的适应性措施比供给管理的适应性措施的可行性更高。在需求管理中,采用既提高灌溉水价又提高工业水价的混合水价政策可能是最优的策略选择,采用农业节水技术为次优策略选择。