Microfabric and anisotropy of elastic waves in sandstone – An observation using high-resolution X-ray microtomography

Petrophysical experiments, using acoustic velocities to characterise anisotropies of mechanical behaviour of rocks are of essential relevance to understand the geomechanical behaviour of sandstone reservoirs under changing stress fields. Here, we present high-resolution X-ray microtomography (μ-CT) as a supplementary research tool to interpret anisotropic ultrasound velocities in sandstones with variation of isotopic stress.Specimens of two Lower Cretaceous sandstones (localities Bentheim and Obernkirchen, both Germany) have been used in petrophysical laboratory experiments under dry conditions to study ultrasonic sound velocities (frequency of signal input 1 MHz). Subsequently, oriented micro-plugs drilled from the sandstone samples were investigated using high-resolution X-ray microtomography. By means of image processing of the reconstructed scan images, geometric attributes such as mean structural thickness, orientation and tortuosity were evaluated from the μ-CT data for both pore space and grain skeleton. Our observations clearly indicate the different roles of pore space and grain skeleton in regard to the propagation of ultrasonic waves: because the pores do not transmit the waves, it was sufficient to investigate the average thickness of this fabric element. In contrast, as the ultrasonic waves traverse the rock via the adjacent grains, it was necessary to survey the actual travel lengths of seismic waves in the sandstone grain skeleton.     

甘泉—富县地区长7致密砂岩储层成岩相的定量识别及其对含油性的控制作用

以岩心分析、测井数据为基础,结合薄片鉴定、扫描电镜等分析手段对鄂尔多斯盆地甘泉-富县地区长7致密砂岩储层的岩性、物性以及成岩相进行了研究。长7致密砂岩储层岩性主要以长石砂岩为主,孔隙度主要分布在3%~10%之间,渗透率主要分布在0.05~0.60 mD之间。依据成岩作用类型和强度及成岩矿物组合特征,并结合孔隙发育特征,将研究区内岩相划分为中压实绿泥石薄膜胶结原生粒间孔相、中压实不稳定组分溶蚀溶孔相、强压实弱溶蚀微孔相、强压实伊利石胶结致密相和强压实钙质胶结致密相5类。通过对成岩相较为灵敏的自然伽马和声波时差交汇建立成岩相识别标准,利用"优势相"法绘制研究区成岩相平面图。勘探成果显示,成岩相对致密油富集具有一定控制作用。     

Optimization of the Rock Physical Model in Tight Sandstone Reservoir

Krief model, Nur model and Pride-Lee model are usually used to calculate dry rock modulus of sandstone reservoirs, but they are not effective for tight sandstone reservoirs. Based on Krief model and Nur model, and minimizing the difference between predicted P-wave or S-wave velocities and measured velocities, we acquireed lithologic index m in Krief model and critical porosity ?_c in Nur model by Gassmann relationship. The empirical parameters used in the models are expressed as the values changing with depth, so the accuracy of Krief and Nur models to estimate the P-wave and S-wave velocities was improved, and these two models are called as the variable parameter Krief model and the variable parameter Nur model. In addition, comparing with prediction accuracy of P-wave and S-wave velocities under different constraints, we can see that the shear modulus formulas in the three models are more accurate and more suitable in the tight sandstone reservoir. Han’s relationship about K_dry and u_dry is not affected by porosity, lithology and other factors, and the paper established dry rock model by Han’s relationship and any one of the above three models. The new dry rock model was applied in the Gassmann relationship to predict S-wave velocity of H8 tight sandstone reservoir in Sulige Gas Filed, Ordos Basin, which improved the accuracy of predicting S-wave velocity. At the same time, lithology index m in Krief model, critical porosity ?_c in Nur model and consolidation parameters c in Pride-Lee model which are corresponding to each sample can be obtained. The values of these parameters can reflect lithology difference, pore structure, compaction degree and other characteristics, which indicate the geological characteristics of the reservoir.     

含倾斜定向排列裂隙介质纵波特征

根据Schoenberg的含裂隙介质的线性滑移模型在弱各向异性近似条件下根据Bond变换获得了含倾斜定向排列裂隙介质的弹性系数矩阵。在将含倾斜定向排列裂隙介质视为倾斜横向各项同性（TTI）介质的基础上根据弱各向异性近似条件下TTI介质纵波相速度、弹性波阻抗以及反射系数的近似解析解,研究了裂隙倾斜角对含倾斜定向排列裂隙介质中纵波相速度、反射系数以及波阻抗的影响。研究发现含倾斜裂隙介质的纵波相速度、各向异性弹性波阻抗、反射系数三个参数具有类似方位各向异性特征：入射角大的时候,显示较强方位各向异性,但是这三个参数对入射角的依赖程度却不完全相同,反射系数对入射角的依赖程度最大。     

Numerical Simulation of the Influence of Pore Structure on Resistivity,Formation Factor and Cementation Index in Tight Sandstone

Tight sandstone,with severe diagenesis and complex pore structure,differs greatly from conventional sandstone in terms of rock electrical parameters.In subsurface rock electrical experiments,various electrical parameters are confounded and can only be analyzed qualitatively.The lack of quantitative analysis for each individual electrical parameter presents a challenge for the evaluation of oil and gas saturation in tight sandstone.Based on the 2D pore-throat model and the features of pore structure in the tight sandstone of the Penglaizhen and Shaximiao Formations in the upper and middle Jurassic of the Western Sichuan Depression,this paper presents 3D micro pore-throat models for three types of tight sandstone.It proposes a finite element-based rock electrical simulation method to analyze the influence of pore structure parameters,such as throat radius and throat tortuosity,on electrical parameters such as resistivity,formation factor,and cementation index quantitatively.The research revealed the following results:(1)Throats of tight sandstone usually have lamellar or curved lamellar shapes that are slender and narrow.The lamellar throat used in the proposed porethroat model is more consistent with the features of tight sandstone than the tubular throat used in the original model.(2)The throat determines the conductivity of tight sandstone.The throat parallel to the electric potential has the greatest influence on conductivity,and the throat perpendicular to the potential has the least influence.(3)In tight sandstone grades I to III,as the porosity decreases,the formation factor increases and the cementation index decreases.(4)The results of the rock electrical simulation are consistent with the results of the rock electrical experiment,which indicates that the proposed rock electrical simulation method of tight sandstone is effective and accurate.     

Effects of anisotropic permeability on stabilization and pore water pressure distribution of poorly cemented stratified rock slopes

Slopes composed of stratified and poorly cemented rocks that fail during heavy rainfalls are typical in the outer zone of Taiwan's Western Foothills. This study investigates how hydraulic conductivity anisotropy influences pore water pressure (PWP) distributed in stratified, poorly cemented rock slopes and related slope stability through numerical simulation. The notion of representing thin alternating beds of stratified, poorly cemented rocks as an equivalent anisotropic medium for ground‐water flow analysis in finite slopes was validated. PWP was then derived in a modelled slope comprising an anisotropic medium with suitable boundary conditions. Simulation results indicate the significance of the principal directions of hydraulic conductivity tensor and the anisotropic ratio on PWP estimation for anisotropic finite slopes. For a stratified, poorly cemented rock slope, estimating PWP utilizing a phreatic surface with isotropic and hydrostatic assumptions will yield incorrect results. Stability analysis results demonstrate that hydraulic conductivity anisotropy affects the slope safety factor and slip surface pattern. Consequently, steady‐state groundwater flow analysis is essential for stratified, poorly cemented rock slopes when evaluating PWP distribution and slope stability. This study highlights the importance of hydraulic conductivity anisotropy on the stability of a stratified, poorly cemented rock slope. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

流体饱和致密砂岩的实验测量与岩石物理建模应用

与孔隙几何相对简单的高孔隙度、高渗透率砂岩不同,致密砂岩的岩石骨架和孔隙结构通常表现出不同尺度上的非均质性。为了研究这种非均质性和饱和流体对致密砂岩性质的影响,测量了具有9块不同孔隙度的致密砂岩在不同围压、干燥和水饱和条件下的超声波速度。利用速度随有效压力的变化曲线估计软孔隙的纵横比分布,进而利用喷射流模型进行流体替换效应解释。基于超声测试数据和局部流机制,建立了考虑软孔隙随纵横比分布的喷射流模型,实现了致密砂岩跨频段岩石物理建模,利用此模型分析了超声频段和地震频段内饱和致密砂岩的流体敏感性。基于超声频段测量的流体敏感度被高估,实际上地震频段的流体敏感度可能与超声分析结果存在较大差异,因此实现实验室低频直接测量对于准确的岩石物理建模和应用具有关键性的意义。     

砂岩单轴压缩试验P波速度层析成像及声发射特性研究

深部矿井开采极易诱发矿柱型岩爆,矿柱型岩爆严重威胁着矿山的安全高效开采,为探究矿柱型岩爆破坏机制和前兆信息,选用自贡红砂岩进行单轴压缩试验,并采用主动超声和被动声发射对破裂过程进行监测,联合主动超声与被动声发射监测数据对波速进行层析成像反演,分析试样破裂过程中波速演化规律。研究结果表明：砂岩试样在加载过程中速度模型呈现高度非均质性,在加载过程中会出现低速区,且声发射事件集中出现在低速区内部;P波速度离散度可反映全局波速变化特征,在峰值附近变化剧烈,随荷载增加P波速度离散度持续增大;声发射事件在峰前、峰后定位结果相差较大,峰前阶段声发射事件随机分布,峰后阶段声发射事件定位结果集中。此外,研究发现选用均质速度模型进行声发射事件定位会增大定位误差,试样最终失稳前b值的降低表明试样大尺度裂纹活动加剧,导致岩石非均质性增大,也间接证明了采用非均质速度模型进行声发射震源定位的必要性。该研究结果可用于现场矿柱稳定性监测,定期反演获得矿柱波速变化为矿柱型岩爆提供先兆预警信息。     

The effect of crustal anisotropy on reflector depth and velocity determination from wide-angle seismic data: a synthetic example based on South Island, New Zealand

When deriving velocity models by forward modelling or inverting travel time arrivals from seismic refraction data, a heterogeneous but isotropic earth is usually assumed. In regions where the earth is not isotropic at the scale at which it is being sampled, the assumption of isotropy can lead to significant errors in the velocities determined for the crust and the depths calculated to reflecting boundaries. Laboratory velocity measurements on rocks collected from the Haast Schist terrane of South Island, New Zealand, show significant (up to 20%) compressional (P) wave velocity anisotropy. Field data collected parallel and perpendicular to the foliation of the Haast Schist exhibit as much as 11% P-wave velocity anisotropy. We demonstrate, using finite-difference full-wavefield modelling, the types of errors and problems that might be encountered if isotropic methods are used to create velocity models from data collected in anisotropic regions. These reflector depth errors could be as much as 10–15% for a 10-km thick layer with significant (20%) P-wave velocity anisotropy. The implications for South Island, New Zealand, where the problem is compounded by extreme orientations of highly anisotropic rocks (foliation which varies from horizontal to near vertical), are considered. Finally, we discuss how the presence of a significant subsurface anisotropic body might manifest itself in wide-angle reflection/refraction and passive seismic datasets, and suggest ways in which such datasets may be used to determine the presence and extent of such anisotropic bodies.     

水-力耦合条件下砂岩声发射和能量耗散的颗粒流模拟

对砂岩进行水-力耦合三轴试验和声发射实时监测,得到水-力耦合作用下砂岩应力-应变曲线和声发射数据。根据试验条件和结果建立离散元颗粒流的水-力耦合双轴模型,研究砂岩声发射和能量演化规律。通过定义耗散能,用耗散能增量较好地诠释了声发射的发展规律。利用微破裂源可追踪声发射局域源,得到水-力耦合条件下的声发射空间分布和裂纹类型。研究表明：（1）孔隙水压力对颗粒的拖拽力削弱了颗粒间的平均接触力,从而降低了砂岩整体强度。（2）孔隙水压力反映出对弹性应变能有一定程度的反复“贮存和清空”作用,造成声发射能量相对离散和峰后的应力波动。（3）渗透压的存在提升了总输入能的耗散效率,降低了总输入能和弹性应变能,须综合考虑总输入能（弹性应变能）和耗散效率才能确定累计耗散能。（4）裂纹分布表现为可能出现与主剪切带呈一定夹角的伴生裂隙带,且受水-力梯度影响,进水端比出水端更密集。（5）张拉裂纹与剪切裂纹的比值于峰值强度处显著增加,峰后趋于稳定。     

Experimental Study on Acoustoelastic Character of Rock Under Uniaxial Compression

This paper made a research about the change rule of elastic wave velocity with stress applied on rock from theoretical and experimental aspect. Firstly, a mathematical model of P-wave velocity and confining pressure of rock was set up from the point of acoustoelastic character. Effect of axial stress on P-wave velocity in granite and sandstone during uniaxial compression process was studied experimentally by using GAW-2000 rock mechanical testing system and RSM-SY5 ultrasonic wave testing system, and the relation curves of axial stress with P-wave velocity were obtained. Based on test data, acoustoelastic theoretical formulas of granite and sandstone were established and the best empirical formulas were fitted by using regression method. Meanwhile, a comparative analysis of the empirical and theoretical calculated values was carried out. Finally, the reliability of applying acoustoelastic theoretical formula in hard rock range was further verified based on the experimental data of granitic gneiss. The results show that the P-wave velocity experiences a rapid increase, gentle increase and then a sharp fall during the uniaxial compression process. The B-value in acoustoelastic theoretical formula (proportion coefficient determined by elastic modulus and third-order elastic constant) decreases exponentially with axial stress. The acoustoelastic theoretical formula can effectively reflect the relationship between rock acoustic velocity and stress within the allowable error, which can be the theoretical foundation of acoustoelastic geo-stress measurement of subsurface rock mass.     

砂岩高温前后超声特性的试验研究

对焦作砂岩经历不同温度（100 ℃～1 200 ℃）前后超声纵、横波波速和几何尺寸进行了量测,进行了单轴抗压强度试验,计算了超声波纵波经过岩样的衰减系数,应用波速与弹性模量的关系计算了岩样的裂隙密度。比较了经历不同温度前后的岩样体积、超声波速、衰减系数的变化。结果表明,岩样在经历高温后内部微裂隙发展,使结构致密性下降,超声波速降低;对经历不同温度后的岩样波速改变与强度变化规律有明显差异,但超声衰减系数与强度变化规律相似,可以为强度评价提供一定参考。     

致密砂岩储层变岩电参数法饱和度计算模型:以苏里格气田西区盒8段例

致密砂岩储层是油气勘探的重点方向之一,由于致密砂岩储层具有低孔低渗、孔隙结构复杂、非均质性强和岩电参数变化等特点,在测井解释过程中不同于常规储层。Archie公式在致密砂岩地层中使用时,强非均质性导致岩电参数a、b、m和n会随着储层的变化而变化。针对苏里格西区盒₈段致密砂岩储层提出利用变岩电参数建立饱和度模型。依据研究区盒₈段储层25块岩心岩电实验分析发现胶结系数m与lgϕ呈二次函数关系、m与岩性系数a呈幂函数关系、束缚水饱和度S_wb对饱和度指数n有较大的影响。因此,在对孔隙度、束缚水饱和度和孔隙结构指数等因素分析的基础上,综合各因素影响特征建立了变岩电参数的饱和度模型。结果表明,该方法相对传统Archie公式饱和度解释,模型精度更高,为解释复杂孔隙结构砂岩储层提供了一种有效预测方法。     

不同岩性及含水率的岩石声波传播规律试验研究

利用智能声波仪对红砂岩、大理岩和花岗岩试样在干燥及饱和条件下进行了声波纵波透射试验,研究声波在岩石中传播的速度特征,同时利用傅里叶变换及小波变换研究声波在岩石中传播的波形、波幅衰减规律、波谱特征。结果表明： （1）红砂岩、大理岩和花岗岩在饱和状态下的纵波波速比其在干燥状态下略高。（2）岩石纵波速度受到岩石的致密程度、孔隙度、密度及硬度的影响。（3）在同样的激发信号下,饱水的砂岩、大理岩、花岗岩岩样声波信号能量集中在低频部分较多,而干燥岩样声波信号能量集中在高频部分较多。（4）饱水的3种岩样声波信号能量衰减较快,尾波不发育;干燥的3种岩样声波信号能量衰减较慢,尾波较发育。（5）穿过岩石的声波信号的波速、波形的时域特征、频域特征及时-频域特征能在一定程度上反映出岩石内部的孔隙及微裂隙的发育情况和岩石含水情况等特征。     

库车前陆地区吐格尔明背斜下侏罗统砂岩成岩作用及孔隙发育的控制因素分析

从沉积、构造和热背景剖析了库车前陆地区吐格尔明背斜下侏罗统砂岩的成岩作用及孔隙发育的控制因素，认为砂岩粒径、热成熟度和构造应力是其成岩作用及孔隙发育的3个主要控制因素。但前两个因素不是背斜南翼砂岩压实较弱、孔隙保存较多，北翼砂岩压实强、孔隙保存少的重要因素；构造应力场才是导致这种显著差异的主控因素，声发射岩石古构造应力测试结果表明该背斜南、北翼之间下侏罗统砂岩受到的最大水平构造应力的差值为72.2 MPa，其减孔量差值达7.6%。     

基于声波测试法对鹰滩页岩各向异性分析

页岩储层通常呈薄层状结构,一般认为其岩石力学参数具有横向各向同性,而其各向异性受围压（CP）、含水率和总有机质含量（TOC）等多种因素的影响。本文对不同围压下的鹰滩（Eagle Ford）页岩进行超声波波速进行测试实验,研究围压对鹰滩页岩波速及岩石力学各向异性的影响。实验结果表明,鹰滩页岩属于弱各向异性多孔介质,并具有横向各向同性、垂向各向异性的性质。纵波（P波）和横波（S波）波速随围压的增大而增大,特别是在低围压范围内增幅显著,同时围压增大会降低纵波和横波的各向异性,纵波各向异性比横波各向异性对围压更敏感。对鹰滩页岩各向异性分析为页岩储层压裂过程中裂缝的起裂和延伸规律研究提供了必要的力学参数。     

Effects of hydraulic conductivity/strength anisotropy on the stability of stratified,poorly cemented rock slopes

This paper presents a numerical procedure to explore how hydraulic conductivity anisotropy and strength anisotropy affect the stability of stratified, poorly cemented rock slopes. The results provide information about the anisotropic characteristics of the medium, including the orientation of bedding planes, the anisotropic ratios of the hydraulic conductivity and the geological significance of the hydraulic conductivity anisotropy on the pore water pressure (PWP) estimation of finite slopes. Neglecting the hydraulic conductivity anisotropy of a slope with horizontal layers leads to a 40% overestimation of the safety factor. For a dip slope with inclined layers with θ = 30°, including the strength anisotropy caused a 25% reduction of the safety factor compared to the cases which isotropic strength is assumed. This paper highlights the importance of the hydraulic-conductivity anisotropy and the strength anisotropy on the stability of stratified, poorly cemented rock slopes.     

Experimental and texture-derived P-wave anisotropy of principal rocks from the TRANSALP traverse: An aid for the interpretation of seismic field data

A representative suite of deformed, metamorphic rocks from the TRANSALP reflection seismic traverse in the Eastern Alps was studied in the laboratory with respect to elastic properties and whole-rock texture. Compressional wave (P-wave) velocities and their anisotropies were measured at various experimental conditions (dry, wet, confining pressure), and compared to the texture-related component of anisotropy. Here ‘texture’ refers to crystallographic preferred orientations (CPOs), which were determined by neutron texture goniometry. In gneisses and schists P-wave anisotropies are mainly controlled by the microcrack fabric. In marbles and amphibolites CPO contributes very significantly to anisotropy. At 200 MPa confining pressure the degree of anisotropy is between 5% and 15%, depending on rock composition and/or CPO intensity. Special emphasis was also put on discussing possible effects of fluids on seismic velocity and anisotropy. Distributions of water-filled microcracks and pores are distinctly anisotropic, with maximum contribution to bulk rock velocity mostly parallel to the foliation pole. Decreasing P-wave velocity and increasing anisotropy of immersed samples may be explained by crack-induced changes of the elastic moduli of bulk rock. The main conclusion regarding interpretation of TRANSALP data is that strong reflections in the deep Alpine crust are probably due to marble–gneiss and metabasite–gneiss contacts, although P-wave anisotropy and boundaries between zones of ‘dry’ or ‘wet’ series may contribute to reflectivity to some extent.     

砂岩早期核心式碳酸盐胶结作用的成像测井证据

早期碳酸盐胶结作用是库车坳陷新生界浅埋藏河流相砂岩内除机械压实外目前正在进行的主要成岩作用,高分辨率电阻率成像测井资料为研究其特征及成因提供了重要的地球物理证据。在电阻率成像测井图像上,早期碳酸盐胶结物呈圆形、椭圆形或不规则斑块状、葡萄状等形态出现,多数顺层理方向分布,其产状有孤立状或分散状斑块、断续胶结纹层和连续胶结纹层等。它们可以发育于砂岩层顶部或底部,也可以与疏松未胶结或弱胶结砂岩呈互层或夹层状交替分布。早期碳酸盐胶结物的沉淀采取核心式胶结模式,即胶结物首先围绕少数核心沉淀,呈斑块状逐渐向外增生,直至从各个核心生长出来的碳酸盐胶结斑块相互靠近和连生导致砂岩层被完全胶结为止。砂体或砂层被碳酸盐胶结的过程遵循由外向内 (由砂体边缘向砂体中心 )、由高渗透纹层向低渗透纹层、由局部胶结核心向周围孔隙增生的规律.