A model of characteristic earthquakes and its implications for regional seismicity

Regional seismicity (i.e. that averaged over large enough areas over long enough periods of time) has a size–frequency relationship, the Gutenberg–Richter law, which differs from that found for some seismic faults, the Characteristic Earthquake relationship. But all seismicity comes in the end from active faults, so the question arises of how one seismicity pattern could emerge from the other. The recently introduced Minimalist Model of Vázquez‐Prada et al. of characteristic earthquakes provides a simple representation of the seismicity originating from a single fault. Here, we show that a Characteristic Earthquake relationship together with a fractal distribution of fault lengths can accurately describe the total seismicity produced in a region. The resulting earthquake catalogue accounts for the addition of both all the characteristic and all the non‐characteristic events triggered in the faults. The global accumulated size–frequency relationship strongly depends on the fault length fractal exponent and, for fractal exponents close to 2, correctly describes a Gutenberg–Richter distribution with a b exponent compatible with real seismicity.     

Earthquake geology of Kashmir Basin and its implications for future large earthquakes

Two major traces of active thrust faults were identified in the Kashmir Basin (KB) using satellite images and by mapping active geomorphic features. The ~N130°E strike of the mapped thrust faults is consistent with the regional ~NE–SW convergence along the Indian–Eurasian collision zone. The ~NE dipping thrust faults have uplifted the young alluvial fan surfaces at the SW side of the KB. This created a major tectono-geomorphic boundary along the entire strike length of the KB that is characterised by (1) a low relief with sediment-filled sluggish streams to the SE and (2) an uplifted region, with actively flowing streams to the SW. The overall tectono-geomorphic expression suggests that recent activity along these faults has tilted the entire Kashmir valley towards NE. Further, the Mw 7.6 earthquake, which struck Northern Pakistan and Kashmir on 8 October 2005, also suggests a similar strike and NE dipping fault plane, which could indicate that the KB fault is continuous over a distance of ~210 km and connects on the west with the Balakot Bagh fault. However, the geomorphic and the structural evidences of such a structure are not very apparent on the north-west, which thus suggest that it is not a contiguous structure with the Balakot Bagh fault. Therefore, it is more likely that the KB fault is an independent thrust, a possible ramp on the Main Himalayan Thrust, which has uplifting the SW portion of the KB and drowning everything to the NE (e.g. Madden et al. 2011). Furthermore, it seems very likely that the KB fault could be a right stepping segment of the Balakot Bagh fault, similar to Riasi Thrust, as proposed by Thakur et al. (2010). The earthquake magnitude is measured by estimating the fault rupture parameters (e.g. Wells and Coppersmith in Bull Seismol Soc Am 84:974–1002, 1994). Therefore, the total strike length of the mapped KB fault is ~120 km and by assuming a dip of 29° (Avouac et al. in Earth Planet Sci Lett 249:514–528, 2006) and a down-dip limit of 20 km, a Mw of 7.6 is possible on this fault.     

碳酸盐岩中锶元素地球化学特征及其指示意义

应用锶指示古环境的方法很多,其中以锶的含量和与Sr配对的相应的元素比值作为指示剂,具有典型代表性。本文以北京下古生界碳酸盐岩为研究对象,采用ICP-MS分析技术测试了49件样品中Sr、Ba、Cu的含量。以锶的含量、Sr/Ba、Sr/Cu比值作为地化指标,深入探讨了锶的地球化学特征。系统的分析了Sr含量,Sr/Ba、Sr/Cu比值对不同的沉积环境的地质响应。指出从浅海环境到深海环境Sr含量及其相应的元素比值增加趋势明显,对沉积环境具有重要的指示作用。并且,Sr的分布还受到不同沉积旋回的影响,研究沉积作用对Sr分布的影响时,应在同一沉积旋回中进行。此外还深入研究了不同岩性、不同沉积旋回中Sr的分布特征,探讨了影响Sr分布的不同因素。归纳了锶对沉积环境的指示作用。就成岩作用对碳酸盐岩中锶分布的影响,结合前人的工作,进行了探索性的分析。     

Evidence of self-organization in Sumatra earthquakes: recurrence time and its geodynamical implications

Risk reduction as an outcome only takes place if results of risk estimation studies are used to develop action plans for risk-management and risk-reduction strategies. This paper describes an automated model that uses the output of existing earthquake loss estimation methodologies to support decision makers in evaluating a set of competing seismic mitigation strategies and exploring their impact in reducing socio-economic losses of urban settlements. The proposed model is structured to quantify the monetary value of earthquake losses and to find an optimal budget allocation assigned to each mitigation strategy based on user input. The optimization method takes into account both pre- and post-earthquake expenditures, such as costs of building upgrades, critical facility enhancement, temporary shelter provisions, debris removal, hospitalization and human casualty. The system consists of five main modules: (1) building damage function; (2) mitigated damage function; (3) cost estimation function; (4) optimization function; and (5) user interface function. Whereas the optimization function provides the optimal values assigned to each mitigation alternative based on the estimated costs and a defined budget, the user interface allows the decision maker to interact with the software in each step and plan mitigation strategies that best suit the user’s socio-economic requirements and limitations. The outputs of the proposed model are presented with respect to an application in a pilot study area within a vulnerable city district of Tehran, Iran.     

Regional economic impact analysis of earthquakes in northern Taiwan and its implications for disaster reduction policies

The direct damage caused by earthquakes, such as impaired buildings, may interfere with normal business operations and disrupt the function of the industrial chain. Such economic impacts can be evaluated using the input–output analysis developed by Leontief. In this paper, two scenario earthquakes in northern Taiwan both with a return period of 475 years—the Hsinchu Hsincheng and the Yilan Nan-ao earthquakes—are simulated. The results show that the economic impact caused by the Hsincheng earthquake is greater than that resulting from the Nan-ao earthquake, which should be the major scenario considered for the disaster reduction plan. The industries affected the most are the manufacturing, food services and entertainment, storage and retail trade, and public and construction industries. The Nan-ao earthquake causes relatively more losses in the food services and entertainment industries. Most of the repercussion effects of these industries are in the central and southern parts of Taiwan. The loss to the manufacturing sector and its repercussion effects are enormous. Therefore, the government should make it a first priority to encourage the manufacturing sector to implement earthquake mitigations, such as a seismic retrofit, or to provide a seismic evaluation, which can enable firms to engage in mitigation voluntarily. The measure needed to reduce the loss in agriculture is that the government can purchase agricultural products in central and southern Taiwan following the disaster and offer them to survivors in northern Taiwan.     

张八岭群火山岩地球化学特征及其构造学意义

安徽滁州张八岭地区的张八岭群分为2组。一是下部北将军组,以千枚岩和片岩为主;二是上部西冷岩组,主要为一套变质火山岩系。张八岭岩群的细碧-石英角斑岩系主要发育于西冷岩组中,具多旋回特点。细碧-石英角斑岩系以石英角斑岩为主,细碧岩次之,角斑岩类稀少。该岩系的火山岩富碱、富钠,具双峰值特征,其主量元素、微量元素和稀土元素地球化学特征表明,它形成于非造山张性环境,为裂陷槽,是与晚元古代罗迪尼亚(Rodinia)超大陆裂解有关的岩浆作用的产物。     

Predicting pyrogenic organic matter mineralization from its initial properties and implications for carbon management

Predicting pyrogenic carbon (PyC) or biochar stability from its precursor properties is critical for evaluating and managing terrestrial C stocks. Transmission mode Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectroscopy was compared with proximate analysis data and H/C and O/C for predicting C mineralization. PyC produced at 7 different temperatures from 6 different feedstocks, in addition to the original feedstock materials, was incubated for 3 yr at 30 °C in a sand matrix. A C debt or credit ratio was calculated by comparing the C remaining in the incubated PyC sample (accounting for the measured C lost during initial PyC production) to the C remaining in the incubated original feedstock. A value > 1 indicates that more C remains in the PyC than in the original feedstock (credit), while a value < 1 indicates a debt. After 3 yr, PyC produced at 300 °C lost significantly more C than higher temperature PyC material, but significant differences in C loss between PyC produced at temperatures ⩾ 350 °C were not detectable. The best predictor of C loss was a multiple linear regression model using the fractional FTIR signals at 816, 1048, 1374, 1424, 1460, 1590, 1700 and 2925 cm⁻¹ as parameters (R² 0.80, p < 0.0001). After 3 yr, the C debt or credit ratio reached values significantly > 1 for all corn PyC samples and some bull, dairy and poultry PyC samples, resulting in net C credit, while all pine and oak PyC samples remained in debt. This C debt or credit ratio reveals that, depending on the timeline of interest, producing relatively low temperature PyC with less initial C loss can result in greater C savings than producing higher temperature PyC, even though the C remaining after exposure to higher pyrolysis temperatures is more stable.     

Evolution of anisotropy with saturation and its implications for the elastoplastic responses of clay rocks

Many clay rocks have distinct bedding planes. Experimental studies have shown that their mechanical properties evolve with the degree of saturation (DOS), often with higher stiffness and strength after drying. For transversely isotropic rocks, the effects of saturation can differ between the bed-normal (BN) and bed-parallel (BP) directions, which gives rise to saturation-dependent stiffness and strength anisotropy. Accurate prediction of the mechanical behavior of clay rocks under partially saturated conditions requires numerical models that can capture the evolving elastic and plastic anisotropy with DOS. In this study, we present an anisotropy framework for coupled solid deformation-fluid flow in unsaturated elastoplastic media. We incorporate saturation-dependent strength anisotropy into an anisotropic modified Cam-Clay (MCC) model and consider the evolving anisotropy in both the elastic and plastic responses. The model was calibrated using experimental data from triaxial tests to demonstrate its capability in capturing strength anisotropy at various levels of saturation. Through numerical simulations, we demonstrate the role of evolving stiffness and strength anisotropy in the mechanical behavior of clay rocks. Plane strain simulations of triaxial compression tests were also conducted to demonstrate the impacts of material anisotropy and DOS on the mechanical and fluid flow responses.     

中国东部地幔岩中的钨含量及其意义

分析了56件中国东部地幔岩包体及其寄主岩石中的钨含量。结果表明，地幔岩包体和寄主玄武岩中的钨含量分别在0．1～1．0μg／g和0．1～2．5μg／g之间。后者一般高于前者且明显不均一，反映钨是不相容元素，在部分熔融过程中倾向于富集在熔体中，而主要源于软流圈地幔低程度熔融的熔体在上升过程中发生了不同程度的岩石圈．软流圈或地壳．地幔相互作用。地幔岩包体钨平均含量接近或仅略高于上地幔钨的丰度，而寄主玄武岩钨平均含量与世界基性岩钨的丰度非常一致，说明我国地幔中钨的丰度与世界其他地区相比并无明显不同，反映钨矿集中区的形成和分布与地幔中钨的原始分布关系不大，我国钨矿集中区的形成可能主要与地壳演化有关。     

柴北缘前寒武纪岩体（地层）变质年龄 及其对早古生代造山作用的指示

柴北缘前寒武纪岩体（地层）分布广泛。为确定柴北缘地区前寒武纪岩体（地层）受早古生代碰撞造山作用的影响,采用LA-ICP-MS技术,对大柴旦地区前寒武纪黑云斜长片麻岩、斜长角闪岩及石榴子石斜长角闪岩中的锆石进行了U-Pb同位素定年。黑云斜长片麻岩获得479~472Ma的变质年龄,斜长角闪岩获得440Ma和470Ma 2个变质年龄,石榴子石斜长角闪岩获得418.8Ma±3.0Ma的变质年龄。初步确定,柴北缘早古生代造山作用对前寒武纪岩体构成了3次强度不等的变质作用叠加,分别为大洋俯冲末期阶段(495~467Ma)岛弧花岗岩弱热烘烤变质作用、大陆碰撞造山阶段(467~423Ma)区域变质作用、S型花岗岩热动力变质作用和大陆后碰撞造山阶段(423~371Ma) I型花岗岩强烈接触热变质作用。     

云南个旧锡矿田碱性岩和煌斑岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年及其地质意义

笔者报道了运用LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb方法对云南个旧地区碱性岩侵入年龄和煌斑岩的测年结果,即白云山碱性岩的形成时代为76.6±3.6Ma.煌斑岩的形成时代为77.2±2.4 Ma,这两种类型的岩石均为燕山晚期岩浆作用的产物.结合区域地质地球物理资料、岩石学组合的构造指示意义及前人的有关其他研究成果,认为这些岩石形成于岩石圈伸展的动力学环境.     

云南个旧锡矿田碱性岩和煌斑岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年及其地质意义

提要：笔者报道了运用LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb方法对云南个旧地区碱性岩侵入年龄和煌斑岩的测年结果,即白云山碱性岩的形成时代为76.6 ±3.6Ma,煌斑岩的形成时代为77.2±2.4 Ma,这两种类型的岩石均为燕山晚期岩浆作用的产物。结合区域地质地球物理资料、岩石学组合的构造指示意义及前人的有关其他研究成果,认为这些岩石形成于岩石圈伸展的动力学环境。     

Distribution of rutile in metamorphic rocks and implications for placer deposits

Pelitic units in the eastern Great Smoky Mountains of the North Carolina Blue Ridge contain rutile grains only in kyanite and higher zones. Adjacent non-pelitic rocks do not contain rutile at kyanite grade but commonly contain sphene. Detrital rutile breaks down at metamorphic grades lower than those at which metamorphic rutile forms. Similarly, pelitic rocks in southeastern Connecticut contain rutile grains above, but not below, the sillimanite isograd. Most non-pelitic rocks there contain rutile only in the hypersthene zone. The slight difference in behavior of rutile in the two terranes is attributed primarily to a slight difference in calcium content of the pelites. In both areas, rutile commonly appears first as inclusions in garnet. Geologic maps showing metamorphic and stratigraphic or compositional information should be useful as prospecting tools for placer deposits. A variety of rocks at granulite facies and pelitic rocks of the upper amphibolite facies contain rutile and these could provide an extensive source for rutile in rutile placer deposits.     

柴北缘前寒武纪岩体（地层）变质年龄及其对早古生代造山作用的指示

柴北缘前寒武纪岩体（地层）分布广泛。为确定柴北缘地区前寒武纪岩体（地层）受早古生代碰撞造山作用的影响,采用LA—ICP—MS技术．对大柴旦地区前寒武纪黑云斜长片麻岩、斜长角闪岩及石榴子石斜长角闪岩中的锆石进行了u—Pb同位素定年。黑云斜长片麻岩获得479-472Ma的变质年龄,斜长角闪岩获得440Ma和470Ma2个变质年龄,石榴子石斜长角闪岩获得418．8Ma±3．0Ma的变质年龄。初步确定,柴北缘早古生代造山作用对前寒武纪岩体构成了3次强度不等的变质作用叠加,分别为大洋俯7中末期阶段（495-467Ma）岛弧花岗岩弱热烘烤变质作用、大陆碰撞造山阶段（467-423Ma）区域变质作用、S型花岗岩热动力变质作用和大陆后碰撞造山阶段（423-371Ma）I型花岗岩强烈接触热变质作用。     

南海盆海山火山碎屑岩的发现及其地质意义

海山火山碎屑岩是水下爆发性火山作用的产物.南海盆两座海山上发现火山碎屑岩表明海山顶部曾经一度高于PCL(压力补偿深度).岩相学特征显示这些火山碎屑岩的胶结物主要为一混合相,包括粘土矿物和黑色铁质矿物等,这从一个侧面反映海山的正地形限制了粗粒外生碎屑到达海山顶部.岩石的单矿物组分、主量元素化学特征与同海山玄武质熔岩具有可比性,属碱性岩浆系列.计算获得海山平均最小下沉速率为0.06mm/年,最大可能达0.30mm/年.海山岩石的机械风化产物对周围海盆的沉积作用作出重要贡献.     

大湖塘钨矿区岩浆岩黑云母的成分特征及其成矿指示意义

大湖塘钨矿床是赣北地区近年来发现的超大型钨-多金属矿床,矿区内岩浆岩十分发育,且均含黑云母。按照黑云母的产出特征,大湖塘矿区岩浆黑云母可分为晋宁期花岗闪长岩中黑云母(类型一)、燕山期似斑状花岗岩中黑云母(类型二)、燕山期细粒花岗岩中黑云母(类型三)3种类型。对3类黑云母的电子探针和LA-ICP-MS分析结果显示,3类黑云母属于铁云母到铁叶云母,富F贫Cl,富集大离子亲石元素Rb、Ba、K和高场强元素Ta、Nb、Ti等。综合对比显示,与钨成矿相关的燕山期似斑状花岗岩中的黑云母(类型二)具有较低的X_(Mg)值和Fe~(3+)/Fe~(2+)值、较高的Cl含量、∑REE浓度和LREE/HREE值,可作为含钨岩浆岩的成矿专属性指标。     

新疆智博铁矿火山岩中富铁岩屑地球化学特征及其地质意义

研究表明,西天山阿吾拉勒铁铜成矿带中智博铁矿区火山碎屑岩中的富铁岩屑主要由自形针状/板条状钠长石和富铁基质组成,呈辉绿/斑状结构。电子探针分析显示,富铁岩屑中钠长石端员组分变化范围为An=0.38～2.89,Ab=95.2～99.32,Or=0.17～2.79,端员组分平均值为An_(0.94)Ab_(98.01)Or_(1.06),类似于火山岩中钠长石端员组分变化范围(An=0.74～6.75,Ab=92.85～98.91,Or=0.32～1.76,端员组分平均值为An_(2.63)Ab_(96.65)Or_(0.72)),两者均为岩浆成因钠长石,而非热液交代成因钠长石。富铁基质成分变化范围较大且连续(w(SiO_2)为0.08%～50.04%,w(FeO)为24.89%～87.13%,w(Al_2O_3)为0.04%～14.83%,w(TiO_2)为0.01%～2.83%,w(Na_2O)为0～9.76%,w(MgO)为0.03%～4.88%,w(MnO)为0～0.61%),富铁基质中高Ti磁铁矿和低Ti磁铁矿同时发育,总体上成分不均一,且钠长石呈细针状,为浅成-超浅成低压下快速结晶的产物或为火山喷发作用下快速冷凝结晶所致。通过对磁铁矿-磷灰石矿物组合与安山岩中副矿物磷灰石、矿区磁铁矿的对比研究,认为智博铁矿发生磁铁矿-磷灰石岩浆不混溶作用的可能性很小。通过安山岩基质成分与安山岩成分的对比研究,得出安山岩基质比原岩w(SiO_2)、w(Al_2O_3)、w(CaO)有所降低,w(FeO)、w(Na_2O)、w(MgO)有一定升高,但是程度有限,表明岩浆结晶分异不足以使残留岩浆形成富铁矿。钠长石-磁铁矿富铁岩屑的发育是一种碱铁效应的表现,而碱铁效应对于海相火山岩型铁矿的形成具有重要意义。     

桂北豆乍山岩体放射性地球化学特征及其干热岩资源潜力研究

对桂北豆乍山岩体钻孔样品进行了放射性生热元素含量、岩石密度和岩石热导率测试.结果 显示该岩体花岗岩U平均含量为17.49×10-6,Th平均含量为27.54×10-6,K2O平均含量为4.64％,放射性生热率平均值6.46 μW/m3,高于地壳平均值及大部分华南其他岩体的放射性生热率值;岩石密度平均在2.57 g/cm...     

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction of Organic Matter from Petroleum Source Rocks and Its Implications

Organic matter was experimentally extracted by supercritical fluids(CO2 1% isopropanol)from petroleum source rocks of different thermo-maturities at different buried depths in the same stratigraphic unit in the Dongying Basin.The results show that supercritical fluid extraction(SFE)is more effective than Soxhlet extraction(SE),with higher amounts and greater varieties of hydrocarbons and soluble organic matter becoming extractive.The supercritical CO2 extraction is therefore considered more valuable in evaluation of petroleum source rocks and oil resources,particularly those of immature types.     

变质岩中的球状结构及其对变质作用的指示

球状结构是指由纤维状晶体组成的放射状集合体,其为一种高度不平衡的结构。它们常见于火山岩、假玄武玻璃、沉积岩以及热液沉积物中,在不同变质级别的变质岩中也有广泛报道。变质岩中的球状结构记录了丰富的变质作用信息,然而其在变质岩中的成因机制和对变质作用的指示意义尚缺少详细的研究。球状结构的生长需要温度、压力或成分的改变使得结晶体系远离平衡,它的结晶动力学过程受物质的扩散控制,要求晶体生长速率远大于物质扩散速率。详细解析球状结构和分析导致不平衡的因素有助于限定变质作用的条件和过程。本文拟从变质岩中报道的代表性球状结构出发,基于球状结构结晶所需的热力学和动力学条件,总结变质岩中球状结构的四种可能成因机制:流体结晶、变质熔体结晶、冲击变质作用和高度不平衡的变质反应。组成球状结构的纤维状晶体具有大的表面能,在持续保持温压和流体条件不变的情况下会快速重结晶使得球状结构消失,球状结构得以保留意味着其所处的环境要迅速转变为它不再结晶的条件。因此,变质岩中的球状结构指示寄主岩石经历了持续时间很短的非平衡变质作用过程。借鉴其它学科研究球状结构的定量方法和在变质作用条件下开展球状结构的实验研究是变质岩中球状结构研究的潜在方向。