Precipitation Chemistry in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Africa: A Case Study of a Rural and an Industrial Site

Experimental data on the precipitation chemistry in the semi-arid savanna of South Africa is presented in this paper. A total of 901 rainwater samples were collected with automatic wet-only samplers at a rural site, Louis Trichardt, and at an industrial site, Amersfoort, from July 1986 to June 1999. The chemical composition of precipitation was analysed for seven inorganic and two organic ions, using ion chromatography. The most abundant ion was SO₄ ^{2 –} and a large proportion of theprecipitation is acidic, with 98% of samples at Amersfoort and 94% at LouisTrichardt having a pH below 5.6 (average pH of 4.4 and 4.9, respectively). This acidity results from a mixture of mineral and organic acids, with mineral acids being the primary contributors to the precipitation acidity in Amersfoort, while at Louis Trichardt, organic and mineral acids contribute equal amounts of acidity. It was found that the composition of rainwater is controlled by five sources: marine, terrigenous, nitrogenous, biomass burning and anthropogenic sources. The relative contributions of these sources at the two sites were calculated. Anthropogenic sources dominate at Amersfoort and biomass burning at Louis Trichardt. Most ions exhibit a seasonal pattern at Louis Trichardt, with the highest concentrations occurring during the austral spring as a result of agricultural activities and biomass combustion, while at Amersfoort it is less pronounced due to the dominance of relatively constant industrial emissions. The results are compared to observations from other African regions.     

Precipitation Chemistry and Wet Deposition in Kruger National Park, South Africa

The chemical composition, as well as the sources contributing to rainwater chemistry have been determined at Skukuza, in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Major inorganic and organic ions were determined in 93 rainwater samples collected using an automated wet-only sampler from July 1999 to June 2002. The results indicate that the rain is acidic and the averaged precipitation pH was 4.72. This acidity results from a mixture of mineral acids (82%, of which 50% is H₂SO₄) and organic acids (18%). Most of the H₂SO₄ component can be attributed to the emissions of sulphur dioxide from the industrial region on the Highveld. The wet deposition of S and N is 5.9 kgS⋅ha⁻¹⋅yr⁻¹ and 2.8 kgN⋅ha⁻¹⋅yr⁻¹, respectively. The N deposition was mainly in the form of NH₄ ⁺. Terrigenous, sea salt component, nitrogenous and anthropogenic pollutants have been identified as potential sources of chemical components in rainwater. The results are compared to observations from other African regions.     

Chemical Composition of Wet Precipitation in Irbid, Jordan

Rainwater samples were collected in Irbid city using 24 hour sampling periods from December 1996 to April 1998. All samples were analyzed for major cations (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺), major anions (Cl^–, NO₃ ^– and SO₄ ^2–) and pH. High levels of Ca²⁺ and SO₄ ^2– were observed. Together, Ca²⁺ and SO₄ ^2– made up more than 52.4% of the total ion mass, while Ca²⁺ alone contributed over 39.0% of the total cation. The majority of the rain samples collected had pH values higher than 5.6. The average pH was 6.4±0.9. High values of pH are attributed to the neutralization by natural alkaline local dusts which contain large fractions of calcite. Correlation and mineralogical analyses indicated that Ca²⁺, K⁺ and fractions of Na⁺, SO₄ ^2– and Mg²⁺ are of crustal origin. Results of the present study suggested that the atmospheric composition in the city is strongly influenced by natural sources rather than anthropogenic.     

我国干旱半干旱区降水场及与北极海冰的关系

采用复经验正交函数方法对我国干旱半干旱区４５个代表站，近４０年来的月降水距平场划分出３种主要的分布型，分析了它们的分布特征，同时还揭示了北极海冰状况与干旱半干旱区夏季降水的密切关系，并初步分析了海冰与极涡，西太平洋副热带高压等大气环流的关联，以了解其可能的天气学影响过程。     

Biomass Burning in Southern Africa: Individual Particle Characterization of Atmospheric Aerosols and Savanna Fire Samples

Ambient atmospheric aerosols and savanna fireparticulate emission samples from southern Africa werecharacterised in terms of particle classes and theirnumber abundance by electron probe X-ray microanalysis(EPXMA). About ten particle classes were identifiedfor each sample. The major classes werealuminosilicates and sea salts for ambient coarse(2–10 m equivalent aerodynamic diameter (EAD))samples, and K-S and S-only particles for ambient fine(<2 m EAD) samples. The K-S particles are oneof the major products of biomass burning. The EPXMAresults were found to be consistent with the resultsfrom bulk analyses on a sample by sample basis. Forsavanna fire fine samples, quantitative EPXMA revealedthat many particles had a composition of simple saltssuch as KCl. Some particles had a deviatingcomposition in the sense that more ionic species wereinvolved in sustaining the balance between cations andanions, and they were composite or mixed salts.Because of extensive processing during the atmospherictransport, the composition of the K-S particles in theambient samples was different from K₂SO₄,and such particles were enriched with S. The finepyrogenic KCl particles and the fine sea-saltparticles were much depleted in chlorine.     

广西区域基于T213降雨的雨级预报试验分析

选取T213L31Rian3—P广西区内12个格点每12h的雨量预报值,经雨级转换后与广西区内所选格点相邻测站之实测雨量(级)进行统计对比分析,从中得到了一些有趣的预报信号,为T213L31Rian3—P在预报服务产品的细精化应用提供了有益的参考。     

祁连山区降水的大气特征分析

利用祁连野外试验站观测资料,引入客观反映高空大气云和降水的表示方法,分析了祁连山区降水的大气特征。结果表明,高层冷云和低层暖云是祁连山区形成降水的主要云系,高层冷云由天气尺度系统决定,而低层暖云则由地形阻挡和加热等作用形成。在不同的天气系统下,地形对降水的作用不同。在西南气流影响下易形成谷风环流,从而增强降水;在西北风...     

2007-2008年南京江北工业区大气降水化学特征

2007年3月-2008年9月在南京市江北地区南京信息工程大学采集有效降水样品共48个,测量了降水的pH值和电导率,用离子色谱仪分析检测了降水样品的阴、阳离子的质量浓度。结果表明：2007年的酸雨频率为44．5％,2008年酸雨频率为59．3％,南京江北工业区降水的酸性及酸化频率都有所增高;2007-2008年大气降水与2005-2006年所测数据相比较,NO3-的质量浓度略有增长,NH4＋的质量浓度有了较大幅度的增长;研究区域SO4／NO。的实验数据表明,硫污染特征有所减弱,氮氧化物污染逐渐突出,表现出燃煤污染与汽车尾气污染并存的过渡型大气污染特征。     

京津冀地区近47 a降水量的变化特征

利用线性回归、突变分析和小波分析方法,分析了京津冀地区1960~2006年84个地面台站降水量的变化.结果表明:47 a来京津冀降水量呈下降趋势,气候倾向率为-15 mm/10 a.除夏季外,其余季节降水量均呈增加趋势.由于华北地区夏季降水量集中了全年降水量的60%~70%,所以夏季降水量的显著减少使得年平均降水量呈下降趋势;京津冀地区夏季降水量在1990年代初发生突变,其他季节降水量无突变现象;年和4季降水量大致存在4个周期的变化.     

Numerical Investigation of the Influence of Mineral Dust on the Tropospheric Chemistry of East Asia

An investigation of the influence of mineral dust ontrace gas cycles in the troposphere is carried out inthis study. A 3D regional scale atmospheric chemistrymodel (STEM-III) which includes aerosol processes isused for the numerical simulations for May 1987.Heterogeneous interactions between gaseous species(SO₂, N₂O₅, HNO₃, HO₂andH₂O₂) and the dust particles are considered.Emissions of dust behind convective cold fronts aremodeled. The transport and distribution of mineraldust predicted from the model is compared withsatellite measurements (aerosol index from TOMS). Themodel is shown to capture the synoptic variability inthe observed aerosol index. Calculations show twomajor dust events in May 1987, during which thedust levels close to the source reach more than500 g/m³. The transport of dust is mostlyrestricted towards the north, with the net continentaloutflow of 6 Tg for the entire month. Results showthat the presence of mineral aerosol can greatlyimpact sulfate and nitrate distributions. Averagedover the month of May, the presence of dust isestimated to increase particulate sulfate and nitratelevels in east Asia by 40%. Furthermore, the sulfateand nitrate on the dust particles are predicted to beassociated with the coarse mode (3–5 m particlediameter), consistent with observations over Japan.The influence of mineral dust on the photochemicaloxidant cycle is also investigated. For the entiremonth, a5–10% decrease in boundary layer ozone ispredicted by the model closer to regions of higherdust levels. The ratio of nitric acid to NO_x overmarine regions is reduced by a factor between 1 and 2in the boundary layer to more than 2 in the freetroposphere as a result of aerosol processes.     

On the distribution of physical and chemical particle properties in the atmospheric aerosol

Consideration of sources and growth dynamics of aerosols has led to the conclusion that there may be a distribution or variation of chemical composition and physical structure among atmospheric aerosol particles as a function of size, and within a narrow size range as well. A mathematical representation of these particle properties in terms of an additional dimension to the number size distribution is described. Examples of the relevance of this aspect of aerosol characterization for physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere are discussed. A review of the available techniques shows that several methods are available which can and have provided quantitative results on the distribution of particle properties. Examples of data from the literature have been selected and are presented as three-dimensional distributions illustrating the wide range of particle properties which may exist in narrow size intervals. An evaluation of these results reiterates the value of taking the distribution of particle properties in the atmosphere into account for sampling and modeling purposes.     

华北地区降水、蒸发和降水蒸发差的时空变化特征

利用华北地区1951~2000年80个观测台站的降水、气温的逐日观测资料分析京津唐地区、华北西部、华北中南部和胶东半岛地区降水、蒸发和降水蒸发差在1951~1965年、1966~1976年和1977~2000年3个时期年代际变化特征。京津唐地区和华北西部地区夏季降水和降水蒸发差从1977年开始减少得比较明显;而胶东地区和华北中南部地区从1965年开始减少,1977年之后减少的更加严重,但4个区域5、6月的降水和降水蒸发差却出现明显的增加。分析还指出,胶东地区和京津唐地区可利用水资源量减少最多。另外还利用欧洲中心(ECMWF)1958~2000年的700 hPa风场资料分析了华北地区夏季降水异常的可能成因,分析结果表明:东亚夏季风在1977年之后明显减弱,造成我国华北地区夏季降水偏少。     

大气传输对华北区域本底地区降水化学成分的影响

对华北区域本底站1999~2007年239次降水过程的气流后向轨迹进行分类,从中选取典型西北路径、西南路径和东南路径降水,研究了不同输送路径下降水pH值、电导率、化学组成特征及影响本底地区的主要排放源.结果显示,起源于我国中东部内陆地区途经太原、石家庄、北京等大城市的西南气流,起源于蒙古国途经我国内蒙地区的西北气流,以...     

呼和浩特市降水化学特征分析

对2006年呼和浩特市降水离子监测资料进行分析,结果表明:降水呈碱性,季节分布明显,夏季降水集中且pH值为全年最低,冬季降水量少,pH值较高;SO42-离子为主要致酸离子,阳离子中Ca2+,Mg2+离子的浓度很高;降水中主要成分之间相关性显著,Ca2+的中和作用较强;降水气团的后向轨迹分析表明蒙古国的沙漠地区是呼和浩特冬春季碱性降水的主要来源,夏季较低的pH值降水则部分源于我国的华中、华北地区的酸性污染物中长距离输送。     

新疆区域面雨量分布特征及其变化规律

将自然正交分解 (EOF) 和数字高程模型 (DEM) 相结合, 利用新疆区域144个气象站和水文站的1961—2005年降水量资料, 计算得到新疆区域面雨量年、季分布特征和变化规律。分析结果表明:新疆区域年平均面雨量约为2724.6×108t, 年平均降水量为165.5 mm。从空间分布来看, 天山山区面雨量最大, 约占全疆面雨量的40.4%, 该区域年平均降水量为409.1 mm; 北疆地区次之占34.3%, 年降水量为277.3 mm; 南疆地区最少约为25.3%, 年平均降水量仅有66.2 mm。从季节分布来看:夏季面雨量最大, 约占全年面雨量的54.4%;春季次之为23.6%;秋季为16.5 %; 冬季最少, 约为5.5%。新疆区域面雨量年际变化呈现出增多的趋势, 1987年存在突变, 在此之后降水量明显增多。     

钟形地形动力抬升和重力波传播与地形云和降水形成关系研究

地形云和降水过程在区域水循环、水资源、生态环境及气候变化中具有十分重要的作用。本文利用中尺度数值模式WRF 数值模拟试验,以及通过引入表示大气层流速度、层结稳定度和地形特征的关系参数——湿Froude 数(F_w),研究了北京2009 年5 月1 日湿条件不稳定大气层结下,地形云和降水形成过程与地形动力抬升和地形重力波传播之间的关系及形成机理。研究表明,在地形最大高度2 km、半宽10 km 的条件下,层流速度从2.5 m/s 逐步增加到25 m/s 时,对应的湿F_w 数从0.19 增加到1.81。当F_w≤1 时,地形的阻挡起主要作用,由地形抬升形成的地形云主要产生在迎风坡一侧。地形重力波主要产生在迎风坡,并向上游传播,先形成层状云,最后演变为准稳定浅对流波状云。最大降水主要发生在紧靠山顶的迎风坡一侧,但当F_w 很小时,地形云不产生降水。当F_w>1 时,地形抬升形成的云主要发生在山顶附近,而地形重力波主要形成在背风坡,并向下游方向传播,形成准稳定波状云。最大降水主要产生在紧靠山顶的背风坡一侧。另外,在弱湿条件不稳定大气层流下,地形降水主要由地形动力抬升造成的暖云微物理过程产生,地形重力波形成的波状云几乎不产生降水。     

高分辨率降水资料在西南山地的适用性分析

文章以站点资料为观测场,以多源实况融合及GPM-IMERG降水产品为评估场,计算西南山地范围内降水数据的时间、空间技巧评分,并比较了几套资料在描述降水量及强降水频率方面的适用性。结果表明,在2019年汛期的大部分时段内,实况融合降水产品的空间评分较为稳定。三套资料在盆地西北侧及南部边缘地区时间评分均优于其他地区,但在盆地多云区GPM-IMERG产品的时间技巧评分低于实况快速融合降水数据。从强降水频率的描述上看,实况快速融合降水的空间分布与站点实测资料最为相似,但其反映的强降水频率与实测值相比偏小,GPM-IMERG产品则偏大。从降水量值的描述上看,实况快速融合降水与实况值相比偏小,而GPM-IMERG产品与实况值相比则偏大。     

兰州地区降水量正态分布特征

在对降水资料的分析过程中,要求资料的时间序列呈正态分布。利用兰州地区的兰州、皋兰、榆中和永登4个站点1960~2009年的降水量资料,采用"偏度—峰度系数+W检验"方法,基于SPSS软件,对兰州地区的年、季和月降水量正态特征进行分析。结果表明,兰州地区4个气象站的年降水量均呈正态性分布;兰州、皋兰和永登3站的夏、秋2季降水量为正态性分布,而榆中站只有秋季降水量为正态性分布,且秋季降水量的正态性最好,冬季最差;大多数月降水量不服从正态分布,但对降水序列进行平方根处理后,其正态性得到明显的改善。     

广西4月雨量异常的车比雪夫多项式诊断及预测方法

利用1960—2004年广西4月37个基本站降水量,NCEP/NCAR 1960—2004年逐日500 hPa再分析资料,对广西及邻近区域(10°~30°N,95°~125°E)高度场进行车比雪夫多项式展开,分析了广西4月异常多雨及少雨年降水量与车比雪夫多项式系数的关系及其降水异常的成因;利用相似合成方法对相关较大的车比雪夫多项式因子进行预测,进而作出广西4月降水量多、少的趋势预测,为有效利用近期逐日环流场资料制作短期降水气候预测提供了新的思路和方法。     

SWC-WARMS在重庆地区的降水预报性能分析

本文利用2016年5~7月SWC-WARMS和CQMFS逐日20时起报的24h累计降水预报资料及24h累计降水观测资料,对两家模式在重庆地区的24~48h和48~72h的24h累计降水预报结果进行客观检验评分和对比分析,并针对2016年5~7月重庆地区的8次区域性强降水天气过程,进行了SWC-WARMS的24~48h强降水落区和强度的主观检验,结果表明:对于24~48h累计降水,CQMFS的TS评分除暴雨和大暴雨量级外均优于SWC-WARMS,且相对于SWC-WARMS而言,空报较少,漏报较多;对于48~72h累计降水,各个量级降水的TS评分、空报率和漏报率的表现一致,SWC-WARMS的各项评分均明显优于CQMFS;对于重庆地区2016年5~7月的8次强降水天气过程,除个别个例预报较差外,SWC-WARMS对强降水落区和强度的预报均具有一定的指示意义,能为预报员提供有用的参考,但降水强度总体偏强,大暴雨量级的降水空报现象较为明显。