Flood risk assessment of River Indus of Pakistan

Annual flood peak discharges is widely used in risk assessment. Major sources of flooding in Pakistan are River Jhelum, River Chenab, River Kabul, and upper and lower parts of River Indus. These rivers are major tributaries of the River Indus System which is one of the most important systems of the world and the greatest system of Pakistan. River Indus is the longest river of Pakistan containing seven gauge stations and several barrages, and it plays a vital role in the irrigation system and power generation for the country. This paper estimates the risk of flood in River Indus using historical data of maximum peak discharges. On the basis of our analysis, we find out which dam/barrage reservoir need to be updated in capacity, and whether there are more dams/barrages needed.     

Three-dimensional modelling of a Holocene tufa system in the Lathkill Valley, north Derbyshire, using ground-penetrating radar

Unlithified and partly lithified carbonate sequences are ideally suited to the application of ground‐penetrating radar (GPR), augmented by percussion augering and shallow seismic techniques, all tied to present‐day topography using global positioning system (GPS) methods. This methodology provides the first clear information on the distribution and geometry of lithofacies within buried tufa complexes. The approach has been applied to a thick succession of Holocene tufas filling a gorge site along a 3·5‐km length of the River Lathkill, north Derbyshire. Earlier studies have demonstrated the presence of up to 16 m of tufas and sapropels associated with two transverse tufa dams (barrages). These strata have been accumulating throughout the Holocene, although tufa developments at present are of minor extent. Internal tufa morphologies are recorded by GPR as ‘bright’, laterally continuous reflections for lithified, concretionary and lithoclast‐rich horizons. The ‘brightest’ reflectors occur within well‐cemented barrages and delineate core areas and prograding buttress zones. In contrast, unlithified lime muds and sapropels produce low‐contrast reflections. Lithostratigraphic control and depth calibration of the GPR profiles was provided by percussion augering at selected sites. Six distinct lithofacies and four secondary barrages are identified in the study. Constructional and destructional events can be identified and correlated within the GPR profile network, and the internal growth morphologies of the barrages are apparent. GPR profiles also clearly define the evolution of the facies geometries. Three phases of tufa development can be recognized within the GPR data and greatly extend our understanding of Holocene tufa‐forming processes in valley sites: (a) Early Holocene barrage build‐ups but with limited paludal deposition; (b) Middle Holocene ponding and sapropel accumulation under ‘warm’ conditions; and (c) Late Holocene barrage termination and valley levelling, probably coincidental with anthropogenic activity. This type of multidisciplinary approach should be considered as an essential prerequisite to all biostratigraphic and geochemical studies of Holocene freshwater carbonate sites.     

The Indus flood of 2010 in Pakistan: a perspective analysis using remote sensing data

The Indus flood in 2010 was one of the greatest river disasters in recent history, which affected more than 14 million people in Pakistan. Although excessive rainfall between July and September 2010 has been cited as the major causative factor for this disaster, the human interventions in the river system over the years made this disaster a catastrophe. Geomorphic analysis suggests that the Indus River has had a very dynamic regime in the past. However, the river has now been constrained by embankments on both sides, and several barrages have been constructed along the river. As a result, the river has been aggrading rapidly during the last few decades due to its exceptionally high sediment load particularly in reaches upstream of the barrages. This in turn has caused significant increase in cross-valley gradient leading to breaches upstream of the barrages and inundation of large areas. Our flow accumulation analysis using SRTM data not only supports this interpretation but also points out that there are several reaches along the Indus River, which are still vulnerable to such breaches and flooding. Even though the Indus flood in 2010 was characterized by exceptionally high discharges, our experience in working on Himalayan rivers and similar recent events in rivers in Nepal and India suggest that such events can occur at relatively low discharges. It is therefore of utmost importance to identify such areas and plan mitigation measures as soon as possible. We emphasize the role of geomorphology in flood analysis and management and urge the river managers to take urgent steps to incorporate the geomorphic understanding of Himalayan rivers in river management plans.     

Impact of rehabilitation of Assiut barrage, Nile River, on groundwater rise in urban areas

To make optimum use of the most vital natural resource of Egypt, the River Nile water, a number of regulating structures (in the form of dams and barrages) for control and diversion of the river flow have been constructed in this river since the start of the 20th century. One of these barrages is the Assiut barrage which will require considerable repairs in the near future. The design of the rehabilitation of the barrage includes a headpond with water levels maintained at a level approximately 0.60 m higher than the highest water level in the headpond of the present barrage. This development will cause an increase of the seepage flow from the river towards the adjacent agricultural lands, Assiut Town and villages. The increased head pond level might cause a rise of the groundwater levels and impedance of drainage outflows. The drainage conditions may therefore be adversely affected in the so-called impacted areas which comprise floodplains on both sides of the Nile for about 70 km upstream of the future barrage. A rise in the groundwater table, particularly when high river levels impede drainage, may result in waterlogging and secondary salinization of the soil profile in agricultural areas and increase of groundwater into cellars beneath buildings in the urban areas. In addition, a rise in the groundwater table could have negative impact on existing sanitation facilities, in particular in the areas which are served with septic tanks. The impacts of increasing the headpond level were assessed using a three-dimensional groundwater model. The mechanisms of interactions between the Nile River and the underlying Quaternary aquifer system as they affect the recharge/discharge processes are comprehensively outlined. The model has been calibrated for steady state and transient conditions against historical data from observation wells. The mitigation measures for the groundwater rise in the urban areas have been tested using the calibrated mode.     

Cleaning of the Ganga

Ganga, the national river of India, is now sadly depleted in flow and utterly polluted due to construction of dams and barrages, discharge of untreated municipal and industrial wastes, floral offerings, cremation of dead bodies on its bank. Kanpur to Trighat is identified as the most polluted section of the river. This critical state of the river has been revealed in the paper based on an analysis of the published accounts and research results by various institutes and individuals. It also sheds light on the strategies and action plans to rejuvenate the Ganga to its pristine quality.     

A sedimentary facies model for stepped,fluvial tufa systems in the Iberian Range (Spain): the Quaternary Piedra and Mesa valleys

Stratigraphic and sedimentological analyses of the Quaternary tufa and associated deposits in the Piedra and Mesa river valleys allowed a number of stages of their sedimentary evolution to be characterized, and a depositional sedimentary model for this north‐central sector of the Iberian Range (Spain) to be established. The proposed sedimentary facies model may explain tufa arrangements in other medium to high gradient, stepped, fluvial tufa systems with narrow transverse profiles occurring in temperate, semi‐arid areas, in both recent and past scenarios. There are several tufa deposits within the Piedra and Mesa river valleys that, over a maximum thickness of about 90 m, record one or more stages of tufa deposition produced following the fluvial incision of the bedrock or previous tufa deposits. Each depositional stage begins with coarse detrital sedimentation. Six fundamental, vertical sequences of tufa facies with small amounts of detrital material reveal the sedimentary processes that occurred in different fluvial environments: channel areas with: (i) free‐flowing water; (ii) barrages and/or cascades; and (iii) dammed water and palustrine floodplains. The proposed sedimentary model involves narrow, stepped, fluvial valleys in which tufa cascades were common. Alternating intervals of bryophyte and stromatolite facies commonly formed at some cascades. Many of these represented barrage‐cascade structures that consisted of phytoclast rudstones, thick phytoherms of mosses and associated stromatolites, and curtain‐shaped phytoherms of stems. Upstream of these structures, dammed areas with bioclastic sands and silts developed and palustrine vegetation grew. The channel stretches between barrages and/or cascades were loci for extensive stromatolite growth in fast flowing water. The palustrine floodplain was home to pools and drainage channels. The model also explains the growth of some barrages in the River Piedra that surpassed the height of the divide, with the diffluence of the main channel into a secondary course forming other tufa deposits in the area. The distribution and abundance of certain types of tufa facies in fluvial basins may be an indicator of differences in their gradients. The facies studied in this work suggest that the gradient of the ancient River Piedra was steeper than that of the ancient River Mesa. Assuming similar scenarios for climate and hydrology, the depositional settings mentioned above and their dimensions would have been determined mainly by the gradient and width of the associated river valleys. This sedimentary model may also be useful for inferring variations in other river basin slopes, as well as accounting for the presence of tufas in areas that normally have no permanent water input.     

Flood estimation in Mahanadi river system,India using partial duration series

Flood frequency analysis is a pre-requisite for setting up and safeguarding of many hydraulic structures, such as dams, barrages, check-dams, culverts and urban drainage systems. In the flood frequency analysis, partial duration series (PDS) may be considered when dealing with values exceeding certain limits causing floods. In fact, the PDS is capable of getting more information about extreme events than the annual maximum series (AMS). Additionally, an assumption that, the magnitude of the extreme events of a PDS is best described by a generalized Pareto (GP) distribution. The present work investigates the at-site flood frequency analysis to find the average number of peaks (λ) for modelling the PDS on the basis of the PDS/GP assumption and variability in the GP parameters coupled with the quantile estimation with an increase in the value of average number of peaks (λ) each year in the Mahanadi river system, Odisha, India. Also, to verify the PDS/GP assumption we tested seven different frequency distributions (Exponential, Gumbel, logistics, generalized extreme value (GEV), Lognormal (LN), generalized logistics (GL) and Pearson Type 3). Extensive daily discharge data collected from 23 gauging sites were used for the analysis. The results indicate precision and stability of GP distribution parameters for λ?=?4 for almost all the discharge sites. The peak flood estimated for various return periods in the Mahanadi river system using GP distribution is endowed with high correlation statistics for this λ value.     

Review of tufa deposition and palaeohydrological conditions in the White Peak,Derbyshire, UK: implications for Quaternary landscape evolution

This review considers the geological and geomorphological context of tufa barrages that occupy buried valley settings in the Wye catchment, Derbyshire. It describes the potential relationship of the tufa with locations of hypothesised river captures and inception horizon-guided groundwater flow paths. Tufa barrage development is associated with steps in the bedrock, which may be related to knick-point recession during river capture. Broad estimates of valley incision have been calculated from previously dated deposits. These support current interpretations of particularly significant effective base-level lowering during the Anglian and Devensian stages of the Quaternary and have the potential to add to the knowledge of regional uplift histories.     

Evaluation of alternatives for lowering the groundwater table in a village in upper Egypt affected by the construction of the New Naga Hammadi barrage

The Egyptian government is replacing the existing Naga Hammadi barrage, located across the Nile River some 450 km south of Cairo, with the New Naga Hammadi barrage (NNHB) to incorporate a hydropower plant and to improve conditions for river traffic. The new structure will lead to an increase in river water levels, both locally near the new barrage and upstream. The rise in river water levels will in turn result in changes in groundwater levels in the aquifer system up and downstream of the barrages. In this paper, an area is chosen, which is expected to suffer from a high groundwater table after the construction of the NNHB, to investigate the problem and propose alternatives for lowering the groundwater levels. The study area is a village called Bakhaness, with an area of 588 ha. It is located some 1.5 km upstream of the NNHB. A computer model (MicroFEM) has been used to simulate the groundwater conditions before and after construction of the NNHB. Alternatives for lowering the groundwater table are proposed, simulated and evaluated. The systems, which are assessed are a municipal sewer system, a system of perforated pipes in urban areas, and tile drainage with different values of efficiency in agricultural areas.     

Geomorphology of the central plain of Thailand and its relationship with recent flood conditions

The author has investigated the micro-geomorphology of the area flooded by the Chao Phraya river, in the central plain of Thailand. The hydrological condition of the Chao Phraya river which occurs throughout most of this plain has changed considerably over the last five decades due to the construction of artificial structures, such as embankments, multi-purpose dams, storing reservoirs, barrages, irrigation ditches and drainage canals. This report describes a recent transformation in flooding in the plain.The geomorphological units in the central plain of Thailand are classified as follows: 3 types of fans, higher and lower natural levees, 3 types of back marshes, 4 types of deltas, higher and lower mud spits and lagoons, tidal flats and former river courses. The geomorphological units correspond with flood conditions. The most serious flood damage to this point has occurred in deep back marshes and lagoons. The depth of the back marshes is greater than 3 m, and in some cases as much as 6 m. The depth of flood waters ranges from 50 cm to 1 m, and the period of submergence of the lagoonal area is more than 3 months.     

Application of dimensional & regression analysis in oil drill bit data

Dimensional analysis is applied to derive the design parametric statements. 348 sets of oil drill bit field data are collected and manipulated into non-dimensional forms which are analyzed using the multiple step-wise regression method. The statistical analysis of these oil drill bit field data yields the corresponding regression equation for each design parametric statement. These regression equations compare favorably with those published. They are used to study the effects of various variables and provide the rule-of-thumb design information such as mud flow requirements. The application of these regression equations in oil drill bit design is suggested together with the design procedures to strike a balance between the mechanical energy and hydraulic energy. The study also confirms that the bit diameter is the most influential factor in affecting the mud flow and that the rate of penetration is a function of mechanical energy, hydraulic energy, mud properties, bit hydraulics, borehole depth and bit life.     

Evaluation of the pH buffer capacity of natural lake waters in western Siberia: Criteria of resistance to acidification

A new technique is suggested for evaluating the pH buffer capacity of natural aquatic systems (as exemplified by small lakes in western Siberia) with regard for the pH values of the lake waters and the concentrations of the hydrocarbonate ion and anions of humic acids,. The acid-neutralizing capacity evaluated for small lakes in western Siberia by conventionally used techniques (which was suggested by Norwegian researchers) is compared with evaluations by the technique suggested by the authors. Criteria are suggested for quantifying the immunity of natural waters to acidification in various natural climatic zones in western Siberia.     

武安团城铁矿矿山环境恢复治理研究及对策

武安市团城铁矿系国有矿山,多年来为国家做出了一定的贡献;20世纪80年代以来,又对数家地方矿山进行采矿。由于采矿弃渣乱放和坑下开采造成地面沉降、塌陷、地裂缝,直接威胁着矿山的正常发展,危及周边村庄的经济、环境和民众的生命安全。通过详细的调查和实测,广泛地收集了各方面资料,因地制宜,提出以废渣部分充填地面塌陷、地裂缝;覆土造林,争取绿化面积超过90%。建设成为集典型地质灾害遗迹观察研究与生态观赏旅游为一体的绿色矿山,把矿产资源开发对环境的破坏降到最低限度,实现资源开发与生态环境的协调发展。     

遥感岩性识别研究的发展趋势--遥感与航空放射性信息集成

岩石的吸收光谱主要是由杂质、包体、蚀变及替代成分产生的,每种岩石都难以形成象它的组成成分那样具有可分辨的很清晰的光谱特征;不同类型的岩石放射性元素的含量和分布特征是不同的,岩石放射性信息是岩性识别研究的重要判据。遥感与航空放射性信息的集成．既能提取光谱图像中的光语信息和空间纹理信息。又可利用航空放射性信息常常具有的甚至是诊断性的岩性识别能谱标志。能明显提高识别岩性的精度,更重要的是能谱不受值被的影响,有利于识别植被覆盖区的岩性。因此,这可能是遥感岩性识别研究的发展趋势之一。     

Human injuries caused by Bangladesh’s cyclone sidr: an empirical study

The objectives of this paper are to examine the extent of human injuries caused by Cyclone Sidr, which made landfall in Bangladesh coast on November 15, 2007, and report on the circumstances, type and causes of injuries, along with selected risk factors associated with such injuries. Relevant data was collected through a questionnaire survey administered among the cyclone victims. Semi-structured interviews with key personnel were also conducted to obtain information regarding the circumstances causing injuries and public response to care for the injured. The questionnaire survey data reveals that among the respondent families, 132 persons sustained various types of injuries. Since the respondent families comprised of 1,443 members, the injury rate was 9.15%. All injured victims were treated either onsite or in local hospitals. The most common types of injuries were soft-tissue injuries (cuts, bruises, and scrapes) and fracture/dislocations. The most common causes of injuries for survivors were associated with falling trees. Analysis of risk factors reveals that age is significantly correlated with injuries. Both formal and informal interviews suggest that injured persons and their family members were in general pleased with medical response they received from various sources. Several recommendations have been suggested to reduce future cyclone-related injuries in Bangladesh.     

土颗粒沉降分析用水类型测试效果的检验比较

随着市场供水水源的多样化,密度计法颗粒分析试验用水类型也趋于多样化。在理论分析基础上,通过对比试验提出当前沉降分析试验用水种类选用的倾向性意见。     

鲁西南归来庄金矿成矿流体特征和演化

归来庄金矿是近年来在鲁西南新发现的隐爆角砾岩型金矿床,成因上与附近铜石偏碱性杂岩体有关。本文通过对侵入杂岩和金矿床中流体包裹体研究,结合前人地质勘探和科研成果,认为形成归来庄金矿的成矿流体是岩浆水与大量来自围岩的大气降水混合而成,早期为富含卤素和CO₂的低-中等盐度热液,演化至晚期为低挥发分、不同盐度的低温热水溶液。金矿沉淀时的流体压力不高于40～60MPa,温度为180～250℃。温度下降和伴随隐爆作用发生的减压和流体不混溶是促使金沉淀的主要因素。     

Vicariance and dispersal: Confrontation or compatibility?

Current methods in biogeography are briefly reviewed and definitions of dispersal discussed. The need for countenancing the possibilities of operation of both the vicariance and dispersal modes is stressed, and for taking into account geological, climatological and floristic information as well as various aspects of the biology and information contained in the distribution patterns and phylogenies of the group under study. Methods for assessing the likelihood of vicariance and dispersal as causal processes, and possible indications of which of these has predominated, are also considered.     

Development of a flood forecasting system using IFAS: a case study of scarcely gauged Jhelum and Chenab river basins

Development of a well-calibrated, distributed hydrological model for flood forecasting based on rainfall and snowmelt is quite challenging, especially when in situ data is limited or unavailable. This paper presents the study carried out to parameterise the Integrated Flood Analysis System (IFAS) model for the trans-boundary, scarcely gauged catchments of Jhelum and Chenab rivers in Pakistan. Rainfall-runoff analysis was performed with a two-layered tank configuration, integrating snowmelt and dam and barrage operation from the very upstream in India to Trimmu Barrage in Pakistan. A grid size of 5?×?5 km was considered. Global map topography, land cover and soil data was utilised. The model was tested considering different magnitudes of floods of the years 2014, 2015 and 2017. The results showed that the satellite rainfall product, i.e. Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP-NRT), underestimated the rainfall volume, compared to the ground-gauged rainfall. The GSMaP-IF correction method showed poor performance owing to the lack of ground observatory rainfall data for correcting the trans-boundary part of the basin. The GSMaP-Type1 correction method showed good results, except for the confluence point where complex flow conditions were not properly reproduced by the model. In addition, the incorporation of dam and barrages in the model improved the simulated flow results. It is concluded that the satellite rainfall estimates must be corrected to improve the results. Snowmelt module estimated the snowmelt contribution as 3 to 7% and 4 to 23% of the average daily discharge during the monsoon season at Mangla Dam and Marala Barrage, respectively, during 2014 and 2015. This study assessed various correction methods and concluded that the model and methodology used in the study functioned well with suitable precipitation.