Nonlinear ocean internal waves observed by multifrequency synthetic aperture radar

A numerical model which consists of the Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation, the action balance equation and the radar backscat- tering model is developed to simulate the frequency dependence of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) remote sensing of nonlinear o- cean internal waves. Muhifrequency data collected by NASA SIR - C SAR and NASA JPL AIRSAR are used as comparison. Case studies show that the results of simulation agree well with the results of SAR data.     

Phase and doppler errors in a spaceborne synthetic aperture radar imaging the ocean surface

Data processing in a spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging the ocean surface is affected by earth rotation, orbit eccentricity, and wave motion. Without compensation these sources will cause the images to shift in range and in-track positions and also cause defocusing. Ionospheric granularities may degrade image quality. Calculations of the magnitudes of these effects are presented.     

Synthetic aperture radar imaging of ocean waves during the marineland experiment

X- andL-band simultaneously obtained synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data of ocean gravity waves collected during the Marineland Experiment were analyzed using wave contrast measurements. The Marineland data collected in 1975 represents a unique historical data set for testing still-evolving theoretical models of the SAR ocean wave imaging process. The wave contrast measurements referred to are direct measurements of the backscatter variation between wave crests and troughs. These modulation depth measurements, which are indicators of wave detectability, were made as a function of: a) the settings used in processing the SAR signal histories to partially account for wave motion; b) wave propagation direction with respect to radar look direction for bothX- andL-band SAR data; c) SAR resolution; and d) number of coherent looks. The contrast measurements indicated that ocean waves imaged by a SAR are most discernible whenX-band frequency is used (as compared toL-band), and when the ocean waves are traveling in the range direction. Ocean waves can be detected by bothX- andL-band SAR, provided that the radar surface resolution is small compared to the ocean wavelength (at least 1/4 of the ocean wavelength is indicated by this work). Finally, wave detection withL-band SAR can be improved by adjusting the focal distance and rotation of the cylindrical telescope in the SAR optical processor to account for wave motion. The latter adjustments are found to be proportional to a value that is near the wave phase velocity.     

Models of radar imaging of the ocean surface waves

A number of models which would explain ocean wave imagery taken with a synthetic aperture imaging radar are analyzed analytically and numerically. Actual radar imagery is used to support some conclusions. The models considered correspond to three sources of radar backscatter cross section modulation: tilt modulation, roughness variation, and the wave orbital velocity. The effect of the temporal changes of the surface structure, parametric interactions, and the resulting distortions are discussed.     

A novel synthetic aperture radar scattering model for sea surface with breaking waves

In this study a novel synthetic aperture radar(SAR) scattering model for sea surface with breaking waves is proposed. Compared with existing models, the proposed model considers an empirical relationship between wind speed and wave breaking scattering to present the contribution of wave breaking. Moreover, the scattering weight factor p, and wave breaking rate q, are performed to present the contribution of the quasi-specular scattering term, Bragg scattering term, and wave breaking scattering t...     

Measurement of ocean surface winds using synthetic aperture radars

A methodology for retrieving high-resolution ocean surface wind fields from satellite-borne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data is introduced and validated. The algorithms developed are suited for ocean SAR data, which were acquired at the C band of either vertical (VV) or horizontal (HH) polarization in transmission and reception. Wind directions are extracted from wind-induced streaks that are visible in SAR images of the ocean at horizontal scales greater than 200 m. These wind streaks are very well aligned with the mean surface wind direction. To extract the orientation of these streaks, two algorithms are introduced, which are applied either in the spatial or spectral domain. Ocean surface wind speeds are derived from the normalized radar cross section (NRCS) and image geometry of the calibrated SAR images, together with the local SAR-retrieved wind direction. Therefore, several C-band models (CMOD IFR2, CMOD4, and CMODS) are available, which were developed for VV polarization, and have to be extended for HH polarization. To compare the different algorithms and C-band models as well as demonstrate their applicability, SAR-retrieved wind fields are compared to numerical-model results considering advanced SAR (ASAR) data from Environmental Satellite (ENVISAT), a European satellite.     

一种快速非局部平均合成孔径雷达海洋图像斑点噪声抑制方法

合成孔径雷达在海洋环境监测和海洋研究中扮演着越来越重要的角色。受其成像机制的影响,合成孔径雷达图像总是受到斑点噪声的污染。斑点噪声的存在会增大目标识别、跟踪和分类的难度,也会降低雷达信号的信噪比。合成孔径雷达海洋图像具有一些特殊的性质：海洋现象在雷达图像中主要呈现为条带状或斑块状的结构。这些条带状或斑块状的结构呈现出高度的自相似性或信息冗余。非局部平均方法能够衡量图像中不同图像块之间纹理结构的相似性,并利用图像的自相似性对图像进行去噪。但非局部平均去燥方法存在计算量巨大、计算耗时长的缺点,这几乎限制了其实际应用。本文采用一种自适应方法将雷达图像中的像素点区分为纹理区像素点和平坦区像素点。对纹理区像素点,采用较大的相似窗和搜索窗,对平坦区像素点,采用较小的相似窗和搜索窗,从而提高计算速度。进一步,本文基于计算统一设备并行架构（CUDA）技术,利用计算机图形处理器（GPU）对前述算法进行并行加速。与经典非局部平均算法相比,加速后算法的计算效率提高了200倍。     

A sea surface height estimator using synthetic aperture radar complex imagery

The reflectivity density approximately describing electromagnetic scattering from a "two-scale" rough surface has a phase linearly dependent on surface height. The synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image is a complicated partially understood transformation of this reflectivity density, but in demonstrable situations the complex image's phase also contains sea height information: reported here is an initial study of an algorithm that exploits this. Envelope and phase demodulation, regression, and filtering algorithms are verified and applied to simulated and actual satellite radar SEASAT-SAR data. The simulation of a simplified stationary scene established tentative sufficient conditions on large-scale SAR and sampling parameters for accurate estimation of the large-scale structure's height and imply feasible system design. The algorithm accurately estimated a long wavelength low-amplitude large-scale sea height structure present in a SEASAT-SAR data record, consistent with available sea truth.     

一种基于Curvelet变换的合成孔径雷达海洋内波图像的斑点噪声抑制方法

合成孔径雷达是海洋内波研究中最重要的工具之一。雷达图像中的斑点噪声会严重降低图像的质量,这一问题在处理和分析信号较弱的二模态内波信号和上升型内波信号时极为明显。合成孔径雷达图像中的海洋内孤立波的信号具有明显的尺度性和方向性。同时,curvelet变换作为一种同时具备尺度分辨率和方向分辨率的数学变换,能够对一幅雷达图像在不同尺度、不同方向和不同位置上进行分析。本文给出了一个基于curvelet变换的合成孔径雷达海洋内孤立波图像的斑点噪声抑制方法。该方法可简述为：(1)对一幅合成孔径雷达海洋内孤立波图像进行curvelet变换,获得curvelet系数;(2)分别仅仅保留一个尺度的系数,将其它尺度的系数置为零,利用处理之后的系数分别重建图像,得到仅仅用一个尺度的系数重建的图像;(3)分别计算上一步中得到的图像的均方差,根据波浪理论,图像的方差代表能量,方差越大则能量越大,以此可以确定内波信息集中的尺度;(4)在每个尺度下,分别计算每个方向的curvelet系数矩阵的平均值,以此确定内孤立波信号集中的方向;(5)在上两步工作的基础上,仅仅保留内波信号集中的尺度和方向的系数,而将其它尺度和方向的系数置为0,得到一幅提取主波信息的图像;(6)将上一步得到的提取主波信息的图像加回到原始图像中,从而达到增强波浪信息并抑制斑点噪声的目的。大量的实验验证表明,该方法不仅能有效地压制斑点噪声,而且能有效地增强波浪信号。     

海洋内波SAR影像成像理论

SAR是一种主动式微波成像传感器,通过测量海面后向散射信号的幅值及其时间相位,能产生海面后向散射强度在海面分布的图像。这种图像能极为详细地显示出海面后向散射强度变化的细节,其分辨率为几米到几十米的数量级。此外,由于SAR工作在微波波段,即使在黑夜也能正常工作,它发射的微波可以穿透云层,因而测量不受恶劣天气的影响。这种全天候、全天时和高分辨率观测海洋的优势是可见光和红外传感器以及其他微波传感器所没有的,所以目前SAR已成为海洋观测的重要手段之一。     

The Seasat-A synthetic aperture radar system

The objective of the Seasat-A synthetic aperture radar (SAR) system was to detect ocean waves from orbital altitudes. An SAR system operating at 1275 MHz (23-cm wavelength) was designed and built to meet this objective. The choice of wavelength was the result of imagery obtained by aircraft during 1972 to 1974 and ease of implementation. The Seasat. A SAR system was turned on in orbit on July 4, 1978, and gathered imagery until the spacecraft bus failed in orbit in October 1978.     

基于合成孔径雷达的长江口海表流场反演

Range Doppler velocities derived from the Envisat advanced synthetic aperture radar（ASAR） wide swath images are analyzed and assessed against the numerically simulated surface current fields derived from the finite volume coastal ocean model（FVCOM） for the Changjiang Estuary. Comparisons with the FVCOM simulations show that the European Space Agency（ESA） Envisat ASAR based Doppler shift anomaly retrievals have the capability to capture quantitative information of the surface currents in the Changjiang Estuary. The uncertainty analysis of the ASAR range Doppler velocity estimates are discussed with regard to the azimuthal and range bias corrections, radar incidence angles, inaccuracy in the wind field corrections and the presence of rain cells.The corrected range Doppler velocities for the Changjiang Estuary area are highly valuable as they exhibit quantitative expressions related to the multiscale upper layer dynamics and surface current variability around the East China Sea, including the Changjiang Estuary.     

复合雷达后向散射模型与合成孔径雷达、散射计和高度计海面雷达后向散射观测的比较分析

海洋微波散射模型相比于以经验统计建立的地球物理模式函数具有不受特定微波频率限制的优势。组合布拉格散射模型和几何光学模型形成了复合雷达后向散射模型。利用南海北部气象浮标2014年海面风速风向实测值作为散射模型输入,分别比较了复合雷达后向散射模型与RADARSAT-2卫星C波段SAR、HY-2A卫星Ku波段微波散射计的海面后向散射系数,偏差分别为(?0.22±1.88) dB (SAR)、(0.33±2.71) dB (散射计VV极化）和(?1.35±2.88) dB (散射计HH极化);以美国浮标数据中心(NDBC)浮标2011年10月1日至2014年9月30日共3年的海面风速、风向实测值作为散射模型输入,分别比较了复合雷达后向散射模型与Jason-2、HY-2A卫星Ku波段高度计海面后向散射系数,偏差分别为(1.01±1.15) dB和(1.12±1.29) dB。中等入射角和垂直入射下的卫星传感器后向散射系数观测值与复合雷达后向散射模型模拟值比较,具有不同的偏差,但具有相同的海面风速检验精度,均方根误差小于1.71 m/s。结果表明,复合雷达后向散射模型可模拟计算星载SAR、散射计和高度计观测条件下的海面雷达后向散射系数,且与CMOD5、NSCAT-2、高度计业务化海面风速反演的地球物理模式函数的计算结果具有一致性;复合雷达后向散射模型可用于微波遥感器的定标与检验、海面雷达后向散射的模拟。     

Digital processing considerations for extraction of ocean wave image spectra from raw synthetic aperture radar data

The digital processing requirements of several algorithms for extracting the spectrum of a detected synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image from the raw SAR data are described and compared. The most efficient algorithms for image spectrum extraction from raw SAR data appear to be those containing an intermediate image formation step. It is shown that a recently developed compact formulation of the image spectrum in terms of the raw data is computationally inefficient when evaluated directly, in comparison with the classical method where matched-filter image formation is an intermediate result. It is also shown that a proposed indirect procedure for digitally implementing the same compact formulation is somewhat more efficient than the classical matched-filtering approach. However, this indirect procedure includes the image formation process as part of the total algorithm. Indeed, the computational savings afforded by the indirect implementation are identical to those obtained in SAR image formation processing when the matched-filtering algorithm is replaced by the well-known "dechirp-Fourier transform" technique. Furthermore, corrections to account for slant-to-ground range conversion, spherical earth, etc., are often best implemented in the image domain, making intermediate image formation a valuable processing feature.     

Ship hull characteristics from surface wake synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery

Improved data collection and processing technologies along with the use of high resolution spectral techniques soon will make it possible to obtain estimates of the Kelvin wave amplitude function A(θ), ship speed U, and ship heading α from synthetic aperture radar images of ship wakes. This paper presents a series of methods for deriving additional hull characteristics such as the length L, volume V, and offsets ζ(x,z) from this spectral and surface wave information. The first method estimates the ship length by taking the Fourier transform of the slope amplitude function |kA|. The remaining estimates make use of the hull inversion code developed at the University of Michigan by Wu in 1991. The accuracy of the hull offsets predicted by the code is first determined for various options for solving the linear inversion problem. In this case, both the magnitude and phase of A(θ) are known in addition to the hull draft H. Since the draft is not often known a priori, the accuracy of the code is determined next by predicting the volume of the ship for an approximate though plausible input value of H. Finally, the accuracy of the non-linear inversion problem of obtaining offsets along the entire hull is investigated when only the magnitude but not the phase of A(θ) is known.     

Estimates of ocean wavelength and direction from X-and L-band synthetic aperture radar data collected during the Marineland experiment

Simultaneously obtainedX- andL-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data collected during the Marineland Experiment were spectrally analyzed by fast Fourier transform (FFT) techniques to estimate ocean wavelength and direction. An eight-sided flight pattern was flown over the same ocean area in order to study the sensitivity of the spectral estimate on radar look direction. These spectral estimates were compared with in situ wave measurements made by a pitch-and-roll buoy. The comparison revealed that theX-band SAR detected all gravity waves independent of radar look direction, while theL-band SAR detected all range-traveling gravity waves but failed to detect waves in three of four cases in which the waves were traveling within 25° of the azimuth direction. The analysis also indicates that azimuth-traveling waves appear longer and more range-traveling in the SAR imagery than observed by in situ instrumentation. It is postulated that degraded azimuth resolution due to scatterer motion is responsible for these observations.     

Vertical synthetic aperture sonar for ocean acoustic tomography

This paper presents the result of a first attempt to achieve a vertical synthetic aperture in the ocean for SOFAR multipath identification. The experiment was conducted during the deployment of a tomographic array in the Mediterranean Sea. Drifting the hydrophone up or down from a ship while listening to the transmitted signal created a powerful synthetic aperture at 400 Hz. Wide-band phase-coded signals, typically used in ocean tomography, were found suitable for this application. The displacement length was 100 m and the hydrophone velocity 1 m/s. The obtained resolution of 1° enabled all the rays in the tested middle range configuration to be resolved and identified. Most of them could not have been resolved with a static hydrophone. Several Doppler processing methods are presented. The narrowband approximation leading to fast algorithms is discussed. Phase time series of individual paths obtained with an array-like wave separation method show that the phase coherence of the different multipaths is nearly perfect. An angle/velocity calibration method and a first rough inversion are finally presented     

Comments on "A sea surface height estimator using synthetic aperture radar complex imagery"

It is shown that sea-surface height may not be estimated directly from the phase of complex synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery.     

全极化合成孔径雷达近岸风场反演研究

Coastal winds are strongly influenced by topology and discontinuity between land and sea surfaces. Wind assessment from remote sensing in such a complex area remains a challenge. Space-borne scatterometer does not provide any information about the coastal wind field, as the coarse spatial resolution hampers the radar backscattering. Synthetic aperture radar （SAR） with a high spatial resolution and all-weather observation abilities has become one of the most important tools for ocean wind retrieval, especially in the coastal area. Conventional methods of wind field retrieval from SAR, however, require wind direction as initial information, such as the wind direction from numerical weather prediction models （NWP）, which may not match the time of SAR image acquiring. Fortunately, the polarimetric observations of SAR enable independent wind retrieval from SAR images alone. In order to accurately measure coastal wind fields, this paper proposes a new method of using co-polarization backscattering coefficients from polarimetric SAR observations up to polarimetric correlation backscattering coefficients, which are acquired from the conjugate product of co-polarization backscatter and cross-polarization backscatter. Co-polarization backscattering coefficients and polarimetric correlation backscattering coefficients are obtained form Radarsat-2 single-look complex （SLC） data.The maximum likelihood estimation is used to gain the initial results followed by the coarse spatial filtering and fine spatial filtering. Wind direction accuracy of the final inversion results is 10.67 with a wind speed accuracy of 0.32 m/s. Unlike previous methods, the methods described in this article utilize the SAR data itself to obtain the wind vectors and do not need external wind directional information. High spatial resolution and high accuracy are the most important features of the method described herein since the use of full polarimetric observations contains more information about the space measured.This article is a useful addition to the work of independent SAR wind retrieval. The experimental results herein show that it is feasible to employ the co-polarimetric backscattering coefficients and the polarimetric correlation backscattering coefficients for coastal wind field retrieval.     

On the growth of ocean waves

The availability of 10 h of continuous, uninterrupted field measurements of wind waves recorded in the western Pacific and containing a complete wave growth episode, has provided a distinct opportunity for us to make a novel, unprecedented examination of detailed wave growth processes. We found that the significance of the size of data used in the measurement, which can only be addressed with continuous and uninterrupted measurements, reflected the ineptness of the conventional approach toward further detailed understanding of realistic wave growth processes, as the conventional 20 min data size essentially stamped out any dynamics with time scale below 20 min. While our conventional understanding and modeling were generally operative and useful, they left no real vestige on time localized mechanisms such as wave grouping or wave breaking processes all with time scales much less than 20 min.