Interannual variability of upwelling indices in the Southeastern Arabian Sea: A satellite based study

Increase in sea surface temperature with global warming has an impact on coastal upwelling. Past two decades (1988 to 2007) of satellite observed sea surface temperatures and space borne scatterometer measured winds have provided an insight into the dynamics of coastal upwelling in the southeastern Arabian Sea, in the global warming scenario. These high resolution data products have shown inconsistent variability with a rapid rise in sea surface temperature between 1992 and 1998 and again from 2004 to 2007. The upwelling indices derived from both sea surface temperature and wind have shown that there is an increase in the intensity of upwelling during the period 1998 to 2004 than the previous decade. These indices have been modulated by the extreme climatic events like El-Nino and Indian Ocean Dipole that happened during 1991–92 and 1997–98. A considerable drop in the intensity of upwelling was observed concurrent with these events. Apart from the impact of global warming on the upwelling, the present study also provides an insight into spatial variability of upwelling along the coast. Noticeable fact is that the intensity of offshore Ekman transport off 8°N during the winter monsoon is as high as that during the usual upwelling season in summer monsoon. A drop in the meridional wind speed during the years 2005, 2006 and 2007 has resulted in extreme decrease in upwelling though the zonal wind and the total wind magnitude are a notch higher than the previous years. This decrease in upwelling strength has resulted in reduced productivity too.     

Patterns of co-variability between physical and biological parameters in the Arabian Sea

The relationship between physical forcing and biological response observed in the Arabian Sea for the years 1978–1986 were examined. Spatial and temporal patterns of variability in a climatological time-series of three possible physical forcing parameters and CZCS-derived phytoplankton pigment concentration during the annual cycle were quantified using single and joint empirical orthogonal function (EOF) and singular-value decomposition (SVD) analyses. Monthly composites of the NASA regional pigment data were interpolated to fill data voids and binned corresponding to the physical flux data. Nearly all the spatial-temporal analyses consistently partitioned a large portion of the variability using only 1 or 2 dominant modes and indicated a lag in the timing of the peak pigment concentration behind the maxima in physical forcing. In all cases, major modes of variability resembled the Southwest Monsoon pattern, with the Northeast Monsoon contributing very little to the total variance and covariance. The Joint EOF and SVD analyses incorporated subtle features surrounding the peak Southwest Monsoon phenomena. Correlation maps of the joint EOF analysis depicted differences in spatial variability of pigment concentration associated with stress and curl, showing areas of curl-driven upwelling distinct from coastal upwelling, with possible off-shore advection of the curl-induced high pigment waters.     

The oxygen minimum zone in the Arabian Sea during 1995

This paper focuses on the characteristics of the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) as observed in the Arabian Sea over the complete monsoon cycle of 1995. Dissolved oxygen, nitrite, nitrate and density values are used to delineate the OMZ, as well as identify regions where denitrification is observed. The suboxic conditions within the northern Arabian Sea are documented, as well as biological and chemical consequences of this phenomenon. Overall, the conditions found in the suboxic portion of the water column in the Arabian Sea were not greatly different from what has been reported in the literature with respect to oxygen, nitrate and nitrite distributions. Within the main thermocline, portions of the OMZ were found that were suboxic (oxygen less than ∼4.5 μM) and contained secondary nitrite maxima with concentrations that sometimes exceeded 6.0 μM, suggesting active nitrate reduction and denitrification. Although there may have been a reduction in the degree of suboxia during the Southwest monsoon, a dramatic seasonality was not observed, as has been suggested by some previous work. In particular, there was not much evidence for the occurrence of secondary nitrite maxima in waters with oxygen concentrations greater than 4.5 μM. Waters in the northern Arabian Sea appear to accumulate larger nitrate deficits due to longer residence times even though the denitrification rate might be lower, as evident in the reduced nitrite concentrations in the northern part of the basin. Organism distributions showed string relationships to the oxygen profiles, especially in locations where the OMZ was pronounced, but the biological responses to the OMZ varied with type of organism. The regional extent of intermediate nepheloid layers in our data corresponds well with the region of the secondary nitrite maximum. This is a region of denitrification, and the presence and activities of bacteria are assumed to cause the increase in particles. ADCP acoustic backscatter measurements show diel vertical migration of plankton or nekton and movement into the OMZ. Daytime acoustic returns from depth were strong, and the dawn sinking and dusk rise of the fauna were obvious. However, at night the biomass remaining in the suboxic zone was so low that no ADCP signal was detectable at these depths. There are at least two groups of organisms, one that stays in the upper mixed layer and another that makes daily excursions. A subsurface zooplankton peak in the lower OMZ (near the lower 4.5 μM oxycline) was also typically present; these animals occurred day and night and did not vertically migrate.     

Aerosols over the Arabian Sea: Atmospheric transport pathways and concentrations of dust and sea salt

This paper provides an overview of dust transport pathways and concentrations over the Arabian Sea during 1995. Results indicate that the transport and input of dust to the region is complex, being affected by both temporally and spatially important processes. Highest values of dust were found off the Omani coast and in the entrance to the Gulf of Oman. Dust levels were generally lower in summer than the other seasons, although still relatively high compared to other oceanic regions. The Findlater jet, rather than acting as a source of dust from Africa, appears to block the direct transport of dust to the open Arabian Sea from desert dust source regions in the Middle East and Iran/Pakistan. Dust transport aloft, above the jet, rather than at the surface, may be more important during summer. In an opposite pattern to dust, sea salt levels were exceedingly high during the summer monsoon, presumably due to the sustained strong surface winds. The high sea salt aerosols during the summer months may be impacting on the strong aerosol reflectance and absorbance signals over the Arabian Sea that are detected by satellite each year.     

南海越南上升流区沉积物中溶解氧、锰和铁的垂直分布特征

2007年夏季航次对南海越南上升流区的三个站位进行现场采样,利用微电极技术测定了沉积物间隙水中的溶解氧(DO溶解氧分子)、锰(Mn2+)、铁(Fe2+)的浓度和氧化还原电位,估算了DO的通量、消耗速率和有机碳的消耗速率.在沉积物间隙水中DO浓度随深度的增加而迅速降低,渗透深度为9-48mm.在沉积物深处还检测到Mn2+和Fe2+.采用元素分析仪测定了沉积物中总有机碳(TOC)含量和总氮(TN)含量,三个站位沉积物中的TOC含量为0.7%-1.03%,TN含量为0.052%-0.10%,C/N为10.5-16.0.从C/N可以看出,该研究区域沉积物中的有机物有部分来源于陆源输入,其中一个站位位于湄公河冲淡水区域,其C/N最大.从氧化还原电位来看,三个站位的沉积环境都属于还原性环境.此研究首次测量了南海越南上升流区沉积物的氧化还原化学成分,对于认识该海区海底生物地球化学具有重要意义.     

Manganese and iron distributions off central California influenced by upwelling and shelf width

In July 2002, a combination of underway mapping and discrete profiles revealed significant along-shore variability in the concentrations of manganese and iron in the vicinity of Monterey Bay, California. Both metals had lower concentrations in surface waters south of Monterey Bay, where the shelf is about 2.5 km wide, than north of Monterey Bay, where the shelf is about 10 km wide. During non-upwelling conditions over the northern broad shelf, dissolvable iron concentrations measured underway in surface waters reached 3.5 nmol L⁻¹ and dissolved manganese reached 25 nmol L⁻¹. In contrast, during non-upwelling conditions over the southern narrow shelf, dissolvable iron concentrations in surface waters were less than 1 nmol L⁻¹ and dissolved manganese concentrations were less than 5 nmol L⁻¹. A pair of vertical profiles at 1000 m water depth collected during an upwelling event showed dissolved manganese concentrations of 10 decreasing to 2 nmol L⁻¹, and dissolvable iron concentrations of 12–20 nmol L⁻¹ in the upper 100 m in the north, compared to 3.5–2 nmol L⁻¹ Mn and 0.6 nmol L⁻¹ Fe in the upper 100 m in the south, suggesting the effect of shelf width influences the chemistry of waters beyond the shelf.These observations are consistent with current understanding of the mechanism of iron supply to coastal upwelling systems: Iron from shelf sediments, predominantly associated with particles greater than 20 μm, is brought to the surface during upwelling conditions. We hypothesize that manganese oxides are brought to the surface with upwelling and are then reduced to dissolved manganese, perhaps by photoreduction, following a lag after upwelling.Greater phytoplankton biomass, primary productivity, and nutrient drawdown were observed over the broad shelf, consistent with the greater supply of iron. Incubation experiments conducted 20 km offshore in both regions, during a period of wind relaxation, confirm the potential of these sites to become limited by iron. There was no additional growth response when copper, manganese or cobalt was added in addition to iron. The growth response of surface water incubated with bottom sediment (4 nmol L⁻¹ dissolvable Fe) was slightly greater than in control incubations, but less than in the presence of 4 nmol L⁻¹ dissolved iron. This may indicate that dissolvable iron is not as bioavailable as dissolved iron, although the influence of additional inhibitory elements in the sediment cannot be ruled out.     

南海主要上升流及其与渔场的关系

<正>南海是我国的重要渔业产区,目前我国每年在这一海区的捕捞产量大约3×106 t。无论在南海北部还是在南海中部和南部海域都分布有优良渔场,这些渔场往往与上升流存在着密切关系。上升流是一种海水垂直向上的运动现象,通常因表层水体辐散所致,是海洋环流中的重要组成部分。上升流涌升速度与水平流速相比甚小,一般只有10–4~10–2 cm/s[1]。上升流可以把底层营养盐带到表层,为浮游植物的生长提供物质基础,进而为浮游动物、鱼类、虾类等     

Vertical zonation and distributions of calanoid copepods through the lower oxycline of the Arabian Sea oxygen minimum zone

This paper provides the first comprehensive analysis of calanoid copepod vertical zonation and community structure at midwater depths (300–1000 m) through the lower oxygen gradient (oxycline) (0.02 to 0.3 ml/L) of an oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). Feeding ecology was also analyzed. Zooplankton were collected with a double 1 m² MOCNESS plankton net in day and night vertically-stratified oblique tows from 1000 m to the surface at six stations during four seasons as part of the 1995 US Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) Arabian Sea project. The geographic comparison between a eutrophic more oxygenated onshore station and an offshore station with a strong OMZ served as a natural experiment to elucidate the influence of depth, oxygen concentration, season, food resources, and predators on the copepod distributions.Copepod species and species assemblages of the Arabian Sea OMZ differed in their spatial and vertical distributions relative to environmental and ecological characteristics of the water column and region. The extent and intensity of the oxycline at the lower boundary of the OMZ, and its spatial and temporal variability over the year of sampling, was an important factor affecting distributional patterns. Calanoid copepod species showed vertical zonation through the lower OMZ oxycline. Clustering analyses defined sample groups with similar copepod assemblages and species groups with similar distributions. No apparent diel vertical migration for either calanoid or non-calanoid copepods at these midwater depths was observed, but some species had age-related differences in vertical distributions. Subzones of the OMZ, termed the OMZ Core, the Lower Oxycline, and the Sub-Oxycline, had different copepod communities and ecological interactions. Major distributional and ecological changes were associated with surprisingly small oxygen gradients at low oxygen concentrations. The calanoid copepod community was most diverse in the most oxygenated environments (oxygen >0.14 ml/L), but the rank order of abundance of species was similar in the Lower Oxycline and Sub-Oxycline. Some species were absent or much scarcer in the OMZ Core. Two copepod species common in the Lower Oxycline were primarily detritivorous but showed dietary differences suggesting feeding specialization. The copepod Spinocalanus antarcticus fed primarily on components of the vertical particulate flux and suspended material, a less versatile diet than the co-occurring copepod Lucicutia grandis. Vertical zonation of copepod species through the lower OMZ oxycline is probably a complex interplay between physiological limitation by low oxygen, potential predator control, and potential food resources. Pelagic OMZ and oxycline communities, and their ecological interactions in the water column and with the benthos, may become even more widespread and significant in the future ocean, if global warming increases the extent and intensity of OMZs as predicted.     

Meiofauna of the western continental shelf of India,Arabian Sea

Meiofaunal standing stock and nematode community structure were investigated in the western continental shelf of India by collecting samples from every degree square of the shelf during two cruises of the FORV (Fishery and Oceanographic Research Vessel) Sagar Sampada, conducted in 1998 and 2001. Samples were collected from 30, 50, 100 and 200 m depths using a Smith Mc Intyre grab. Meiofaunal density ranged from 8 Ind. 10 cm⁻² to 1208 Ind. 10 cm⁻² and biomass from 0.07 mg 10 cm⁻² to 6.11 mg 10 cm⁻². Nematodes were the dominant meiofaunal group, contributing 88% of the density and 44% of the biomass. Harpacticoid copepods were the second important taxa, contributing 8% of both biomass and density. Altogether, 154 species of nematodes belonging to 28 families were recorded from the study area. Numerically, Desmodora spp., Dorylaimopsis sp., Tricoma spp., Theristus spp. and Halalaimus spp. were the dominant species. In general, there was a decrease in biomass and density of meiofauna and species diversity of nematodes with increase in depth. There was a 67% drop in species number from 51 to 100 m (106 species) to the shelf edge (35 species). Species richness and diversity indices showed consistent decrease with depth. The species dominance index was higher below 150 m depth. ANOSIM (from PRIMER) showed a significant difference between the nematodes of the near shore and shelf edge. Latitudinal variation was observed only in the number of nematode species. Biomass and abundance of nematodes were found to increase from coarse to fine sediment, while copepods showed an opposite trend. Multivariate analyses of nematode communities did not reveal any latitudinal or substratum differences. Variables such as depth, latitude, organic matter (OM) and amount of clay were the most relevant parameters influencing the biomass and density of meiofauna, while depth and temperature were the important parameters explaining the distribution of the nematode communities along the western Indian shelf.     

Nitrogen transformations as inferred from the activities of key enzymes in the Arabian Sea oxygen minimum zone

Vertical distributions of the potential activities of some key enzymes mediating nitrification and denitrification were investigated within the oxygen (O₂) minimum zone of the Arabian Sea at a number of locations between latitudes 17°N and 21°N and longitudes 63°E and 68°E so as to get an insight into the predominant biochemical mode(s) of production and consumption of nitrous oxide (N₂O). Results revealed that the dissimilatory nitrate (NO⁻₃) reduction activity was generally very low or absent within the σ_θ range 26.6–26.8, which corresponds to the Persian Gulf Watermass (PGW). Depth profiles of nitrate reductase (NaR), nitrite reductase (NiR) and ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) activities were compared with those of O₂, NO⁻₃, nitrite (NO⁻₂) and N₂O, and it is concluded that nitrifier denitrification rather than heterotrophic denitrification is active within the core of PGW. The presence of multiple peaks of AMO activity coinciding with distinct maxima in the O₂ profile and with a trend opposite to that of NaR activity indicates that the two processes, viz., classical and nitrifier denitrification, occur in discrete layers, probably determined by the variations in the ambient O₂ concentrations at various depths surrounding the PGW core. Further, it appears that at the depths where nitrifier denitrification is active in the absence of heterotrophic denitrification, N₂O builds up as its consumption may be inhibited by O₂. Possible reasons for the occurrence of appreciable nitrate deficit within the core of PGW, where dissimilatory NO⁻₃ reduction is lacking, are discussed.     

On the heat budget of the Arabian Sea

This study analyzes the heat budget of the Arabian Sea using satellite-derived sea-surface temperature (SST) from 1985 to 1995 along with other data sets. For a better understanding of air–sea interaction, canonical average monthly fields representing the spatial and temporal structure of the various components of the heat balance of the Arabian Sea are constructed from up to 30 years of monthly atmospheric and oceanic data. The SST over the Arabian Sea is not uniform and continually evolves with time. Cooling occurs over most of the basin during November through January and May through July, with the greatest cooling in June and July. Warming occurs over most of the basin during the remainder of the year, with the greatest warming occurring in March and September. Results indicate that the sign of the net heat flux is strongly dependent on the location and month. The effects of net heat flux and penetrative solar radiation strongly influence the change in SST during February and are less important during August and September. Horizontal advection acts to cool the sea surface during the northeast monsoon months. During the southwest monsoon horizontal advection of surface waters warms the SST over approximately the southern half of the basin, while the advection of upwelled water from the Somalia and Oman coasts substantially cools the northern basin. The central Arabian Sea during the southwest monsoon is the only area where the change in SST is balanced by the entrainment and turbulent diffusion at the base of the mixed layer. Agreement between the temporal change in the satellite-derived SST and the change calculated from the conservation of heat equation is surprisingly good given the errors in the measured variables and the bulk formula parameters. Throughout the year, monthly results over half of the basin agree within 3°. Considering that the SST changes between 8° and 12° over the year, this means that our results explain from 62% to 75% of the change in SST over 56% of the Arabian Sea. Two major processes contribute to the discrepancy in the change in SST calculated according to the heat budget equation and the change in SST derived from satellite observations. The first is the effect of the horizontal advection term. The position of the major eddies and currents during the southwest monsoon greatly affects the change in SST due to the large gradient in temperature between the cold upwelled waters along the Somali coast to the warm waters in the interior of the basin. The second major process is the thermocline effect. In areas of shallow mixed-layer depth, high insolation and wind speeds of either less than 3 m/s or greater than 15 m/s, the bulk formulae parameterization of the surface heat fluxes is inappropriate.     

Grain-size variation in the Kavaratti lagoon sediments,Lakshadweep, Arabian Sea

The Lakshadweep are a group of coral atolls enclosing lagoons and submerged reefs and banks in the Arabian Sea off the western coast of India. The sediments in the lagoons consist of corals, halimeda, shells of gastropods, pelecypods, foraminifera, ostracods, etc. derived from the breaking up of the reefs by mechanical processes such as waves, winds, currents, etc. To study the grain-size characteristics of these calcareous sediments in the lagoons, 50 samples were analysed and the grain-size parameters were calculated. The mean of the samples range from ?1.538 to 2.161, standard deviation from 0.935 to 1.859, skewness from ?1.051 to 1.635 and kurtosis from 2.068 to 4.402. The sediments range from coarse sand and gravel to very fine sand size in general and usually are well sorted. A bimodal to polymodal character is present in the sediments due to mixing of a number of heterogeneous constituents. The coarser sediments consist of corals and a good amount of halimeda occurs in the 0 (1 mm) to ?1 (2 mm) phi class. Foraminifera predominantly occur in the interval 1 (0.5 mm) to 0 (1 mm) phi. In the range 1 (0.5 mm) to 2 (0.25 mm) phi, corals are again important, while in the sizes finer than 2 phi (0.25 mm), all the constituents predominate. The size distribution was compared with those obtained at other places such as Barracuda Keys, Gulf of Aqaba, Isla Perez and Lower Florida Keys. The present grain-size variation is not only controlled by the composition of the calcareous sediments but is also modified by the different transporting agents, such as waves, winds, currents, etc. Different energy conditions also exist in the lagoon. Mean transport direction seems to be roughly towards the SSE and saltation is an important mode of transport.     

Enhanced preservation of organic matter in sediments deposited within the oxygen minimum zone in the northeastern Arabian Sea

The presence of a strongly developed oxygen minimum zone (OMZ; [O₂]<2 μM) in the northeastern Arabian Sea affords the opportunity to investigate whether oxygen deficiency in bottom waters enhances the preservation of organic matter in the underlying sediments. We explored if the observed patterns of organic matter accumulation could be explained by differences in productivity, sedimentation rate, water depth, and mineral texture. The differences in the burial rates of organic matter in sediments deposited within or below the OMZ could not be explained on the basis of these factors. All collected evidence points to a coupling of low oxygen concentrations and enhanced organic matter preservation. Under more oxygenated conditions bioturbation as well as the presence of labile manganese and iron oxides are probably important factors for a more efficient microbially mediated degradation of organic matter. Pore water profiles of dissolved Mn²⁺ and Fe²⁺ show that reduction of manganese and iron oxides plays a minor role in sediments lying within the OMZ and a larger role in sediments lying below the OMZ.     

Features of the crustal structure of the Arabian Sea

An analysis of the gravity field and geoid heights allowed us to distinguish a third buried basin filled with sediments located in the southwestern part of the sea in the regions adjacent to the Carlsberg Ridge. From the previously known basins, it is separated by saddles. The saddles correspond to a series of faults and are possibly related to the pulse character of the northwestward prograding of the spreading axes of the Carlsberg Ridge. The continental origin of the Laxmi ridge is confirmed. The results of an analysis of the gravity field and its transformants, together with the two-dimensional density modeling, agree with the possibility of the existence of a spreading type of the crust (I) in the region of the Laxmi Basin. An analysis of the geoid height anomalies allows us to suggest that, with respect to the upper layers of the lithosphere, the Laxmi Ridge is not connected with the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge.