Navigating a complex policy system—Explaining local divergences in Swedish fish stocking policy

Swedish fish stocking policy constitutes an example of the disparate challenges associated with adaptive management theory and the realization thereof. The vast substantial and institutional uncertainties of the policy subsystem have previously been identified as variables that complicate the realization of adaptive policy making. The aim of this paper is to address and tentatively explain differences in regards to how these uncertainties are handled. What regional variances in Swedish fish stocking policy can be distinguished and how can these variations be explained? The empirical analysis shows that Swedish fish stocking policy consists of a wide array of different regional policies. These regional variations are explained by differences in existing implementation resources, policy beliefs and readings of formal regulations. Policy makers can decrease these divergences in two ways; they can either change formal regulations or influence available implementation resources. Both management approaches might have positive as well as negative effects on the subsystem's adaptability.     

A comparative case study of fish stocking between Sweden and Finland: Explaining differences in decision making at the street level

Even though fish stocking might have unfavourable effects on the genetic composition of wild populations, stocking programmes are currently developed in significant numbers in the Baltic Sea. The aim of this study is to examine and propose explanations for potential differences in fish stocking practices between Finland and Sweden. A comparative case study, focusing on the operational decisions made by frontline bureaucrats at the regional level, is conducted. The results show that frontline bureaucrats in Finland make more similar decisions than their colleagues in Sweden do. The lower regional variation can be explained by greater similarities in policy beliefs and by the fact that Finnish bureaucrats, in cases of uncertainties, consult the same implementation resource. Thus, by clarifying policy substance and by designing a central organisation for the provision of knowledge and advice, policy makers can counteract regional variation in fish stocking practices.     

Banking on cod: Exploring economic incentives for recovering Grand Banks and North Sea cod fisheries

Demand for wild (non-farmed) seafood is increasingly reliant upon a natural capital base that is rapidly diminishing. Despite this, studies show that changes in management could increase fisheries’ profitability whilst also protecting fish stocks. This premise is approached by looking specifically at north Atlantic cod—a species that has collapsed in many regions but with evidence to suggest it has the biological potential to recover, despite concerns about altered ecological niches and changing oceanic conditions. The key issue is how the potential economic benefits of cod recovery can provide the fishing sector with incentives for change and how these can be translated into a case for investment, given the financially difficult transition period that currently inhibits fisheries reform. In examining this, the paper concludes that repayable financial investments and rights-based management, tailored to local situations, are required to create resilient and diverse ecosystems that underpin improved seafood economies. It is essential, however, that management and policy solutions adopt a holistic ecosystem-based management approach.     

Numerical simulation of the effects of fish behavior on flow dynamics around net cage

The computational fluid dynamics study is performed to analyze the impact of the cultured fish on the flow field through net cage and the deformation of net cage. The shear stress turbulent k-omega model is applied to simulate the flow field through the net cage, and the large deformation nonlinear structure model is adopted to conduct the structural analysis of the flexible net cage. To validate the net-fluid interaction model of the net cage in current, a series of physical model tests are conducted, which indicate that the numerical model can accurately simulate the flow field around the net cage and the deformation of the net cage. A fish model is used to simulate the effect of fish behavior on the flow pattern around the net cage and the deformation of the net cage. In addition, the flow fields around the net cage in current are investigated considering different fish group structures, fish swimming speeds, fish distributions and fish stocking densities. The results indicate that the circular movement of fish in the still water leads to a low pressure zone at the center of net cage, which causes a strong vertical flow along the center line of the net cage. The drag force on the net cage is significantly decreased with the increasing fish stocking density, but the most severe deformation of net cage occurred in the case of medium fish stocking density.     

Engaging Los Angeles County subsistence anglers in the California marine protected area planning process

Ecosystem-based management is more successful when a great diversity of stakeholders is engaged early in a decision-making process. Implementation of the California Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA) has been stakeholder-based, coordinating the participation of a wide range of people including divers, fishermen, conservationists, local officials, business owners and coastal residents. Although commercial and recreational fishermen have actively participated throughout the MLPA implementation process, and research related to California’s sport and commercial fisheries has been integrated into the process, pier and shore anglers have been relatively unengaged as stakeholders. This study was completed to generate information about pier angler understanding and sentiment towards marine protected areas (MPAs), as well as to educate anglers on the MLPA implementation process in southern California and inform them on involvement opportunities. Of the 3030 pier anglers surveyed over 12 months, 78% only fish for subsistence from piers and from shore (never from boats); 84.6% are of non-White/Euro-American ethnicity and speak English as a second language; and 82% indicated that they were supportive of establishing a strong network of MPAs in southern California, specifically fully-protective no-take marine reserves. This study is an example of an alternative and customized method of outreach designed to reach a unique and previously unengaged stakeholder group, which stands to be affected by the implementation of the MLPA in California. Engaging such non-traditional stakeholders in public policy may be critical for decision makers to gauge all views from those standing to be affected by a policy—not just the views of those that regularly attend policy meetings—and for the ultimate success of policy implementation and community support.     

Small state,maritime great power? Norway’s strategies for influencing the maritime policy of the European Union

In 2007 the EU Commission published the so-called “Blue Book” aimed at developing an Integrated Maritime Policy for the Union. Even though Norway is not an EU member and is usually referred to as a small state, this article shows how the Norwegian government was able to exercise significant influence on EU maritime policy development, positioning itself as one of the key actors. Applying the negotiation theory and tracing the process as it unfolded, this analysis identifies causal relationships leading to increased influence for Norwegian actors—particularly in respect to how issues concerning the Arctic became an integrated part of the policy. The paper concludes that even though the Norwegian actors had a strategic point of departure, utilizing objective advantages to maximize their own utility, their influence may also have been due to competence and sharing of knowledge. The article relies on official documents, but is to a large extent also based on interviews with key EU Commission and Norwegian governmental representatives. On an elevated, substantive analytical level the article contributes to the “small state” research agenda and its interest in how small states in international relations might influence policy outcomes and thrive in the international community.     

Institutional challenges for resolving conflicts between fisheries and endangered species conservation

Successful species conservation typically results in conflicts between wildlife protection and economic uses of natural resources as in fisheries and aquaculture. This article shows why managing these conflicts require a more comprehensive approach than currently pursued by endangered species conservation programmes. Against the background of several case studies focussing on wildlife conflicts in European waters this article derives two challenges for institutional response: First, the question of mandate—which societal actor initiates management related processes that require multiple actors to collaborate? Second, how can continuous processes of collaboration be sustained?     

The triangle of marine governance in the environmental governance of Dutch offshore platforms

In this paper, we develop the triangle of marine governance to understand the changing locus and focus of marine governance practices. In general, the locus and focus of marine governance is shifting from top-down, state-led governance to network governance. This shift is captured by the triangle of marine governance, because the triangle refers to the institutional setting in which politics and policy making takes place (polity), to policy making itself (policy), to activities of politicians and processes of power (politics), and to the interplay between policy, politics and polity. Studying the dynamics of politics and policies in marine governance practices through the triangle allows us to analyze and explain how and why the shifts in locus and focus occur. These dynamics of marine governance—as the interplay of policy, politics and policy—is illustrated by the environmental governance of Dutch offshore platforms.     

Disentangling seafood value chains: Tourism and the local market driving small-scale fisheries

Identifying socio-economic drivers of small-scale fisheries is a fundamental step to understand impacts and pressures on fishery resources, and the behaviour of seafood trade actors. It is especially relevant for developing countries where such information is usually lacking and fisheries management is greatly needed. To address this gap, this study maps the structure of value chains of fish and marine invertebrates caught by small-scale fisheries from São Vicente, Cape Verde (West Africa), and examines the main socio-economic drivers behind the seafood trade on the island. Specifically, it shows how drivers, such as tourism and the local market, shape the preferences for certain species and how they affect the distribution of income among actors involved in the seafood trade. To collect this information, interviews were done with fishers, small-scale traders, market vendors, and restaurant owners, in all fishing communities of the island of São Vicente, in 2015. Tourism and the local market drive the exploitation of a wide variety of marine species, from small demersal low trophic level fish and marine invertebrates, to large pelagic high trophic level fish species. Moreover, the local seafood market, and especially tourism dynamics, contribute to the unequal distribution of income among actor groups, benefiting mostly restaurant owners due to their direct access to tourist consumers. Such findings have implications for local fishery resources management, food security, and fishing communities’ livelihoods.     

Responses of the fishing sector to transitional constraints: From reactive to proactive change,Yucatan fisheries in Mexico

Most fisheries management studies have concentrated on understanding resource dynamics and have paid less attention to understanding the dynamics of those who use the resources. This situation limits the knowledge about the fisheries system as a whole and specifically about the viability of management schemes. It is vital to understand how the actors within the fishing sector (fishing firm owners/managers, fishers, fisheries managers, and traders) may respond to changes in fishing resources trends, market dynamics, and fisheries policies before they are implemented. These issues are explored in this paper by applying a longitudinal analysis of the Yucatan Mexico's fishing industry. The analysis is presented within the framework of the theory of change and coping strategies. The study primarily involved interviews during 2008 with the main owners of companies in the fishing industry and with fisheries managers and other stakeholders. Time-series catch data on the main fishing resources are also reviewed to evaluate changes across three historical periods and describe how the actors have perceived and responded to those changes. Given conditions of uncertainty in resource availability, changes in market demand and changes in institutional arrangements, the viability of traditional business and resource management practices are discussed. The analysis presents different kind of triggers that have modified the conditions of the fishing sector and had had impacts on the socio-economic–ecological system in which fisheries are embedded. The need for adaptive strategies in the whole chain of the fisheries business and resource management is stressed, given the current changes and conditions of fisheries. The discussion states a series of actions that could improve the relationships between business practices and fisheries management.     

Environmental protection and the freedom of the high seas: The Baltic Sea as a PSSA from a Swedish perspective

In 2005, the Baltic Sea, except for its Russian waters, was designated as a particularly sensitive sea area (PSSA) by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The previous designation of the Western European waters as a PSSA—intensely debated within the IMO—had repercussions for this process. Reviewing the case exposes the conflict between the fundamental principles, territorial sovereignty, and freedom of the high seas that international law seeks to balance. Likewise, review indicates that the PSSA concept is under almost constant reconceptualization as it is put to test in practice.     

Leaning on user-groups: The role of civil society in fisheries governance

Fisheries have long been managed through public–private partnerships based on collaboration between government and user-groups. The alleged benefits of involving the latter—as representatives of civil society—are a management system that is more flexible and legitimate than one based exclusively on top–down command and control. A question that is rarely addressed is whether civil society is up to the task. Are voluntary associations fit—‘technically’ and ‘democratically’—to take on management responsibilities? Assessing the pros and cons of involving civil society in fisheries governance requires a closer look at the role of user-groups in public policy-making. This paper attempts to do that by examining certain aspects of the Norwegian system of fisheries management, focusing—in particular—on the role of its most prominent civil society player: the Norwegian Fishers’ Association. The association has long been a privileged partner, virtually monopolizing the attention and goodwill of government. How has this been justified, and does it still serve its original purpose? As the fishery has changed, so—we contend—has the association: from something akin to a public interest group into what is essentially a ‘trade union’ pursuing the economic interests of its most powerful members. How and why did this change—in goals and priorities—come about, and is it tenable that this particular partnership continues? What lessons, if any, can be drawn from the Norwegian case about the pros and cons of user involvement, interactive governance and the role of civil society in fisheries management?     

Designation of marine protected areas in Belgium: A legal and ecological success?

In Belgium a long process (1999–2005) led to the designation of several marine protected areas (MPAs). In order to analyse the designation process, the ‘policy arrangement approach’ was used as an analytical tool. Attention was given to four dimensions (actors and coalitions, arguments, rules and resources). Particular attention was paid to the switch from an authoritative to a more deliberated policy style in reaction to conflicts with stakeholders. This switch in policy style contributed to a successful legal designation, but does not guarantee the best protection of marine biodiversity. This case study linked science (setting ecological goals) to policy (analysis of a policy process) and led to some more general conclusions on the designation of MPAs and the role of participation in this process.     

The precautionary approach to non-native fisheries—The case of striped bass in Texas

Fisheries managers have long relied on non-native fish to improve, sustain, or create recreational fishing opportunities, often without adequate consideration of potentially negative ecological consequences. There is growing advocacy for using the precautionary approach to avoid potentially serious or irreversible harm to the environment in the face of scientific uncertainty. This paper uses striped bass (Morone saxitilis) in Texas to examine possible effects that might have resulted had the precautionary approach been applied before stocking began in the 1960s when the species was considered non-native to Texas. The current range of reproducing striped bass populations extends from the North Atlantic Ocean to the U.S.–Mexico border. However, the western extent of the species current range beyond Louisiana is probably the result of stocking begun in 1965 that continues today. The historic range is yet unresolved. The best available information suggests that striped bass are not native to Texas, fish stocking has resulted in beneficial economic impacts, and any negative effects (i.e., harm) are currently unknown. It seems unlikely that application of the precautionary approach would have led to different outcomes in Texas than currently exist. However, the complete striped bass story has yet to be written.     

Acceptable sustainability in the fishing fleet

This article discusses the performance of the Norwegian fishing fleet within an acceptable level of sustainability. Previously, the cod-fishing fleet has been evaluated at the attributes—accident risk, employment, profitability, quality of the fish meat, catch capacity, greenhouse gas emissions/acidification, and bycatch/selection. The assessments focused on the first four steps of the systems engineering process, i.e., from needs identification to trade-offs of system alternatives. The objective of this paper is to focus on the last steps of the process; design, solve, verify, and test, to improve the decision-basis for fisheries management in order to increase sustainability in the fishing fleet. More specifically, this means to analyze the decision-making situation and develop acceptance criteria of a sustainable Norwegian cod-fishing fleet to enable fisheries management to monitor the sustainability performance of the fleet on a regular basis.     

Policy and practice in the live reef fish for food trade: A case study from Palawan,Philippines

The live reef fish for food trade is a highly significant fishery that provides income for many coastal communities in the Asia-Pacific region but faces challenges relating to sustainability. This paper draws attention to the large gaps that exist between policy and practice in the live reef fish for food trade in Palawan, Philippines. While many policies have been introduced over many years, effective implementation remains a challenge. We show how the implementation of successive sets of policies has been hindered by three broadly inter-related features of the local social landscape: the capacity of government institutions and legal frameworks to implement regulations, the distinctive culture of fisheries governance in the Philippines, and the perspectives and practices of local fishers themselves. By focusing on the gaps between policy and practice, we highlight the ongoing need to examine more explicitly the ways in which local contexts shape the effectiveness of implementation, enforcement and policy more generally.     

Structuring social data for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive

The Marine Strategy Framework Directive, adopted by the EU, and several other initiatives to improve marine environmental management emphasize the need to integrate environmental and social analyses. This article proposes and tests a general Behavior-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (BPSIR) framework for identifying and structuring environmentally relevant social data. The framework is compatible with the widely applied Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework, but emphasizes actors and their behavior and defines ‘impact’ more specifically. In particular, it distinguishes between: (i) actors directly involved in activities causing physical, chemical, and biological disturbances, and (ii) actors who indirectly affect marine resource use and the pressures on marine ecosystems. Three case studies of chemical and biological disturbances in the Swedish parts of the North and Baltic seas demonstrate the need to balance current ecosystem monitoring with systematically collected and organized data on social factors, i.e., both direct and indirect actors and stakeholders, their adaptation to policy measures, and the role of general trends in consumption and production.     

Adaptive governance and the human dimensions of marine mammal management: Implications for policy in a changing North

As climate change has driven dramatic changes in Northern sea ice regimes, marine mammals have gained iconic status around the world reflecting the perils of global warming. There is a tension between policies that have international support like a ban on seal hunting or whaling, and the adoption of adaptive, flexible rules that are likely to work in Northern places. Whereas most wildlife policy focuses on biological information to inform policy strategy, this analysis focuses on the “human dimensions” of Northern marine mammal management. This research examines ways in which human relationships and modes of governance affect conservation success. Standard analyses of risk to animal populations focused on direct sources of take are inadequate to address multi-causal, complex problems such as climate-induced habitat loss or increased industrialization of the Arctic Ocean. Early conservation policy strategies focusing on the moratorium of take have eliminated or reduced such practices as commercialized hunting and high levels of fisheries bycatch, but may be less relevant in an era in which habitats and climate changes are key drivers of population dynamics. This paper argues that effective adaptive policy requires new ways of learning about and governing human interactions with marine mammals. Through an exploration of marine mammal management in three Northern regions (Alaska, Nunavut, and the Finnish Baltic Sea coast), the paper analyzes the extent to which these marine mammal management regimes are practicing adaptive governance, that is, building cross-scale (local to international) understanding while allowing actors at the local scale the flexibility to direct the creation of rules that are ecologically robust and likely to succeed. Lessons are taken from these examples and used to propose selected policy and research recommendations for the marine mammal policy community.     

Conflicts at sea between artisanal and industrial fishers: Inter-sectoral interactions and dispute resolution in Senegal

Conflicts between artisanal and industrial fishermen—targeting increasingly scarce resources in Senegal—are posing a serious threat to human security and are only symbolically addressed by the country's fisheries governance regime. Severely outmatched in terms of political influence and size, artisanal fishermen are more vulnerable to the fallout of conflicts at sea. The loss of fishing materials threatens the livelihoods of fishermen and their families; collisions and violence between members of the two sectors often result in injury and death. This study examines at-sea interactions between Senegal's artisanal and industrial sectors and the formal and informal mechanisms in place for managing them. Conflictive interactions are found to co-exist alongside cooperative ones and both emerge in response to changes in marine resource abundance and management. Formal systems in place to mediate at-sea conflicts are ineffective and seldom used by artisanal fishermen, who either accept their losses, attempt to informally resolve conflicts with industrial actors or resort to violence.     

Purpose,policy, and practice: Intent and reality for on-ground management and outcomes of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Notwithstanding a complex array of international, national, and local policies designed to protect biodiversity and manage human activities, the condition of Australia's Great Barrier Reef has been deteriorating. This trend indicates that policy settings are inadequate or the right policies have been prescribed but not effectively implemented. This study aimed to determine which policies influenced on-ground management of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area and Marine Park, how they were implemented, and the challenges encountered by practitioners in applying policies. The research required content analysis of policy instruments relevant to various jurisdictional levels, and surveys and interviews with 19 key informants across jurisdictions and agencies. This study found that policy intent is not automatically translated into practice: international agreements are interpreted and reinterpreted along the policy pathway to on-ground management and, consequently, the aspirations of these agreements can be frustrated and their effectiveness diluted. Due to limits of jurisdictional responsibility, practitioners within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority are constrained in influencing key factors that impact on their capacity to address threats and manage outcomes. The major policy gap affecting management outcomes was the absence of a mechanism with which to manage cumulative impacts responsible for deterioration of key ecosystem processes and biodiversity. These findings highlight that effective policy implementation is a challenging task, limited by gaps between intentions and outcomes, inconsistencies, and conflicting agendas. An improved understanding of the policy implementation process and the policy-practitioner relationship is essential to enhancing links between policy and on-ground management.