Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe

The European Union׳s energy policy aims to increase the proportion of energy derived from renewable sources in Europe. Marine renewable energy, offshore wind energy especially, contributes to the renewable energy mix. Offshore wind farms appear to be clean, and are supported by governments and NGOs as a way to reduce the use of conventional energy resources and thus decrease greenhouse gas emissions. However, developing infrastructure in marine areas can impact marine ecosystems. European directives ask offshore wind farm developers to carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) including a mitigation hierarchy, i.e. envisaging measures that would avoid, reduce, and if possible offset significant adverse effects on ecosystems and human activities. This paper reviews EIA reports from seven European countries and is focused on impacts on the open water marine environment. According to the reports, measures have been taken for avoiding and reducing impacts, so there should be no significant negative residual impacts and hence no need of offsets. But the mitigation hierarchy for ecological impacts seems to have been incompletely implemented, because it is unlikely that there are no significant residual impacts. The paper proposes some technical and ecological explanations, followed by some governance and social explanations, for the absence of biodiversity offsets.     

Frequent locations of oceanic fronts as an indicator of pelagic diversity: Application to marine protected areas and renewables

Frequent locations of thermal fronts in UK shelf seas were identified using an archive of 30,000 satellite images acquired between 1999 and 2008, and applied as a proxy for pelagic diversity in the designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Networks of MPAs are required for conservation of critical marine habitats within Europe, and there are similar initiatives worldwide. Many pelagic biodiversity hotspots are related to fronts, for example cetaceans and basking sharks around the Isle of Man, Hebrides and Cornwall, and hence remote sensing can address this policy need in regions with insufficient species distribution data. This is the first study of UK Continental Shelf front locations to use a 10-year archive of full-resolution (1.1 km) AVHRR data, revealing new aspects of their spatial and seasonal variability. Frontal locations determined at sea or predicted by ocean models agreed closely with the new frequent front maps, which also identified many additional frontal zones. These front maps were among the most widely used datasets in the recommendation of UK MPAs, and would be applicable to other geographic regions and to other policy drivers such as facilitating the deployment of offshore renewable energy devices with minimal environmental impact.     

Attitudes of Scottish fishers towards marine renewable energy

Development of the offshore renewable energy sector will have implications for the fishing industry by limiting access and navigation, and potential impacts (both positive and negative) upon commercially fished species. Fishers' attitudes and behaviour have been found to influence the success of fishery management measures, compliance with regulations, and Marine Protected Areas; suggesting they may also affect offshore renewable energy developments. A postal survey was conducted to investigate fishers’ attitudes towards offshore energy extraction and any influential factors in terms of fishing experience and practice, association membership, location, and knowledge of offshore renewable energy installations. The most important factor influencing fishers’ opinions was whether they knew of a nearby offshore development, followed by location (whether they operate from the mainland or the islands); and despite concerns regarding the perceived impacts and mitigation the majority of fishers held either neutral or positive attitudes towards offshore renewable energy extraction.     

Modeling the decommissioning cost of offshore wind development on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf

The U.S. government requires renewable energy facilities installed in federal waters provide financial security to help ensure decommissioning obligations are carried out in the event the operator is unable to meet its obligations or goes bankrupt. The size of the bond is determined by the estimated decommissioning cost and is required prior to the approval of construction activities. The purpose of this paper is to develop decommissioning cost estimates for proposed U.S. offshore wind farms. Removal and site clearance cost are estimated across each stage of activity using empirical and hypothetical relations under current technology and market conditions without inflationary adjustment. Preliminary development plans characterize and define the system and serve as model input. A bottom-up approach based on operational stages is developed across removal, transport, processing and disposal activities. Disposal cost is calculated on a per ton basis and is estimated separately for each wind farm component. The model is parameterized with data from four proposed U.S. offshore wind farms and decommissioning costs are found to range from 115,000 to 135,000 $/MW, approximately 3-4% of estimated capital costs.     

基于海上风电场构建海洋水文同步实时现场观测系统的思考

海上风电是一种清洁的可再生能源。本文简述了海上风电发展概况, 并介绍了广东省在南海北部建设海上风电场的进展, 同时描述了南海北部一些典型的海洋水动力过程及其现场观测研究存在的难题; 最后提出利用海上风电场构建海洋水文现场同步实时网络系统的观点, 指出利用这些长期定点的网络式观测数据对研究海洋中小尺度动力过程等的优势。希望能为促进海上风电与海洋科学研究的融合发展提供参考。     

The existing law and policy framework for ocean energy development in Ireland

This paper considers the existing law and policy framework for ocean energy development in Ireland. As a nation, Ireland proposes to have 75 MW of ocean energy connected by 2012 and a further 500 MW by 2020. This has been supported by various policy documents and Government initiatives in recent years. Despite the obvious Government support for offshore renewable energy, the existing legal framework presents a veritable barrier to development progress. This paper provides a succinct overview of the existing applicable legal regime focusing on licensing and planning aspects. Specifically it examines the realities of the Foreshore Acts, Electricity Regulation Act, Planning and Development Acts and associated Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations and their role in wave energy development. This sets the context for a review of the problems associated with the existing legal regime, including delay and uncertainty, before presenting possible measures which may help address them. The latter discussion is framed within the context of developing and forthcoming European and national initiatives such as the Integrated Maritime Policy, Maritime Spatial Planning, Integrated Coastal Zone Management and Strategic Environmental Assessment.     

From Scotland to New Scotland: Constructing a sectoral marine plan for tidal energy for Nova Scotia

Competing usage of marine space has prompted several coastal nations to implement marine spatial planning (MSP). While progressive governments promote the deployment of renewable energy technologies (RETs) in order to meet renewable energy capacity and greenhouse gas emissions reductions targets, offshore RETs become another player operating within a finite and already stressed marine environment. This paper applies the sectoral MSP process employed by Scotland to the Nova Scotia context in order to draft a MSP for the province's tidal energy sector. Applicable legislation is reviewed in order to establish the regulatory authorities with powers to plan for both the marine development and ecosystem protection agendas. The scoping process identifies suitable resource areas based on the operational parameters of commercially viable tidal current turbines (TCTs), while the sustainability appraisal identifies areas of cultural, industry, ecological, and socioeconomic constraint and exclusion. Plan option areas emanating from the applied methodology demonstrated a 238.345 km² (98.1%) increase in suitable TCT deployment area than the marine renewable energy areas identified in Nova Scotia's Marine Renewable Energy Act which did not undertake such a methodology.     

Filling the gaps one at a time: The Gully Marine Protected Area in Eastern Canada. A response to Agardy, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Christie

In a recently published paper, Agardy et al. [Mind the gap: addressing the shortcomings of marine protected areas through large scale marine spatial planning. Marine Policy 2011;35:226-32] discuss the shortcomings of several Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) including the Gully MPA, located 200 km offshore Nova Scotia, Canada. Although the paper's critical assessment of MPA effectiveness was welcomed, the Gully MPA received an out-of-date profile resulting in an erroneous analysis of current protection levels. This short communication has been written to set the record straight.     

Technologies and their influence on future UK marine resource development and management

This paper attempts to predict changes and trends in future UK marine resource development and management. It does this by asserting that our presumptions about marine resources and the way in which they should be used are changing. Some emerging presumptions may not only preclude the use of existing technologies in some cases (e.g. dumping at sea), but may also act as drivers to the development of new technologies, such as offshore wave and wind power generation devices. A variety of maritime industries exploiting both living and non-living resources are examined individually. Attention is paid to marine conservation and the technologies that are important to providing generally for the protection of the marine environment. The authors conclude that major drivers will be ones for cleaner seas, for the development of renewable marine energy sources, and for the innovative management of the consequences of sea-level rise. With regard to the exploitation of living resources the finite limits to fisheries are stressed, and the present importance of industrial fishmeal supplies for salmon farming are highlighted. One of the greatest potential technological advances is predicted to be in marine habitat mapping. Given the changes in presumptions about our use of the seas, one over-riding conclusion is that the sustainable development of marine resources, and the conservation of priority habitats and species (for both the local seas and global oceans), must involve sustainable mechanisms for conflict resolution and decision-making.     

The economic impacts of marine energy developments: A case study from Scotland

Delivering the ambitious renewable energy targets set by the Scottish Government will require significant expenditures. Plans have been set out to develop 1.6 GW of marine (wave and tidal) energy capacity between 2010 and 2020 in the Pentland Firth and Orkney Waters area (off the north coast of Scotland) with construction costs estimated at £6 billion. This paper uses multi-sectoral economic models to explore the impact that these (temporary) expenditures could have on the Scottish economy. It is shown that the standard Input–Output (IO) modelling approach significantly overstates the employment and value added impacts compared to Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) methods—in which short-run scarcity of factors of production are explicitly modelled. CGE results (under myopic and forward-looking model specifications) produce smaller impacts during the timespan of expenditures but, unlike IO methods, identify non-trivial “legacy effects” after the expenditures cease.     

英国海上风电行业发展前景展望 ——基于差价合约制度的分析

英国海上风电产业起步较晚,但发展迅猛,成为全球海上风电产业的领头羊。英国海上风电产业扶持政策依次经历过非化石燃料义务制度、可再生能源义务制度、差价合约制度等阶段。差价合约制度作为可再生能源义务制度的后继制度,在制度上有较多的创新之处,有效地推动了英国海上风电产业的发展。文章基于差价合约制度与可再生能源义务制度的分析和比较,结合英国海上风电2030年规划目标,深入分析发现差价合约制度对英国海上风电产业发展具有较大的推动力。研究表明,差价合约制度改进了可再生能源义务制度的不足之处,能够充分利用市场机制提高海上风电企业的投资热情,降低消费者的电力消费成本,并可减轻政府的财政压力,从而推动英国海上风电产业的快速发展,这对我国具有一定借鉴意义。     

Co-location of activities and designations: A means of solving or creating problems in marine spatial planning?

Worldwide demand for energy is growing and predicted to increase by up to three times by 2050. Renewable energy will play a vital role in meeting this demand whilst maintaining global climate change targets. Around the British Isles, development of wind farms has entered Round three, with large, high capacity wind parks being planned to enhance energy security and achieve 2020 renewable energy targets. Such developments place additional pressure on existing sea space and may result in conflicts with other marine activities and users. Co-location of certain activities, marine protected areas, aquaculture and commercial fishing in particular, has therefore been proposed as an option to ease demands on space. Using the UK guided by EU and regional policy, as a case study, following the criteria-based planning system, co-location is legally feasible. Crucially, co-location options will depend on site specific characteristics and site management plans. The biology, ecology and hydrology of the site as well as consideration of important commercial and economic factors will be determining factors of success. For marine protected areas compatibility with conservation objectives for the site will be fundamental. Where possible, it is suggested that activities suitable for co-location will develop in tandem with renewable energy projects. The importance of developing joint projects in this manner is particularly true for aquaculture projects to ensure tenure security and commercial viability. Adaptive management will be a basis for evolution of the concept and practice of co-location. Pilot projects and continued monitoring will be essential in shaping the future of co-location of activities. As the Marine Management Organisation continues the development of marine plans for the English inshore and offshore waters, a study into potential solutions for resolving sea use conflicts is timely. This paper therefore provides a concise overview of the current regulation affecting co-location of key marine activities within wind farm zones and provides suggestions on how co-location projects can be adopted and taken forward, using the UK as a case study.     

A well-being framework for impact evaluation: The case of the UK offshore wind industry

Growing levels of energy consumption and concern over the environmental consequences of energy production are leading to an increased investment in renewable energy generation. Despite an important relationship between energy production, consumption and well-being, little attempt has been made to provide a holistic assessment of how renewable energy sectors can contribute to different aspects of human well-being. This paper develops an impact evaluation framework that can be used to capture societal-level impacts of change on primarily objective well-being and applies it to the case of the UK offshore wind industry. As such, the framework goes beyond the traditional view of economic, social and environmental impact assessment and evaluation capturing wider aspects of societal costs and benefits as well as sustainable development. The framework proves a useful tool for organising the available evidence and suggests a broadly positive impact of the UK offshore wind industry. While further testing and refinement of the framework is needed, it could be easily transferred for well-being assessment of other industries and interventions.     

海上风电场高桩承台群桩基础平台的设计研究

针对国内海上风电基础设计没有统一的规范及标准,为提升海上风电基础设计建设的水平,通过对东南沿海某海域海上风电基础的设计进行了有限元计算分析论证,验证了群桩高承台结构设计方案的设计方法和设计参数。分析结果表明该设计的最大应力主要发生在塔筒底座与承台接触部位及钢管桩与承台连接段,应在连接部位加强措施处理;基础竖直位移较小,水平位移相对较大;分界部位应力较集中,刚度不能顺畅过渡,可考虑填充碎石土等方法加强。本研究对海上风电基础设计技术的研究与探索,可为将来制定中国海上风电行业标准提供可靠的依据,对中国未来大批量的海上风电能源的开发有着重要意义。     

Renewable energy from the ocean

Growing concern over the threat of global climate change has led to an increased interest in research and development of renewable energy technologies. The ocean provides a vast source of potential energy resources, and as renewable energy technology develops, investment in ocean energy is likely to grow. Research in ocean thermal energy conversion, wave energy, tidal energy, and offshore wind energy has led to promising technologies and in some cases, commercial deployment. These sources have the potential to help alleviate the global climate change threat, but the ocean environment should be protected while these technologies are developed. Renewable energy sources from the ocean may be exploited without harming the marine environment if projects are sited and scaled appropriately and environmental guidelines are followed.     

海上风牧融合的难题与挑战

在海洋战略和清洁能源战略背景下,我国围绕海洋牧场和海上风电开展了规模化建设并取得了巨大成就。但工程成本高昂、海洋生境破碎化和用海冲突等问题日益显著,国内外由此开展了海上风电和海洋牧场融合发展的试点与探索。文章整理分析了国内外相关研究和试点工作,针对海上风牧融合发展的现状以及在经济和政策可行性、选址与规划、鱼种选择、配套设备开发、生态影响评估（噪声、电磁场、底座干扰和重金属迁移等）等方面的难题与挑战提出建议。     

多能互补海洋能集成发电技术研究综述

介绍了国内外基于风能、太阳能、波浪能和潮流能等海上可再生能源进行多能互补集成发电的研究发展情况,从不同技术研究侧重点、不同装置机理差异性和多能互补集成发电方式等方面进行了概括和综述,对已有设备和理论研究等进行了对比,评述了目前海洋多能互补集成发电技术研究中存在的主要问题以及未来的研究发展趋势,指出未来海洋能源集成发电需在离岸化、新材料、大型化和阵列布局等方面进行技术研究和攻关。     

基于集约理念的海上风电用海面积控制指标研究

近年来我国沿海地区海上新能源用海、油气用海、交通运输用海等需求显著提高,对海洋空间资源的刚性需求急剧增加,供需矛盾日益紧张。尤其是海上风电用海,受国家宏观战略影响,呈现跨越式发展,装机容量跃居世界第一。大规模海上风电建设对海洋空间资源配置提出更高的要求,如何既保障海上风电用海需求,又协调海上风电与其他行业的用海矛盾,成为亟待解决的重要问题。树立自然资源集约利用理念能够良好解决上述问题,集约利用理念既是全面提高海洋空间资源利用效率的内在要求以及协调保护与利用显著矛盾的需要,更是协调保护与发展关系的关键。基于此,文章系统分析现有海上风电场外缘边线包络海域面积、确权海域面积等数据,采用集约化的空间资源开发理念,从项目选址与海缆路由、风电场设计与技术要求、用海范围及确权面积控制等方面完善海上风电用海面积控制指标体系,以期提高海上风电项目用海集约水平。     

船载风控大容量气溶胶采集系统的开发和应用

在"我国近海环境综合调查与评价"的海洋气溶胶调查研究中,开发研制了新型船载风控大容量气溶胶采集系统。该系统由风向风速控制器、大容量采样器、自动控制器和抗风防雨防腐蚀箱体等组成。经过海上2 a 4个季度的海洋环境作业,表明该系统具有的大容量采集海洋空气体积,满足海洋气溶胶的微量组分的检出要求;具有的风速风向控制系统,能有效避免所采集的大气气溶胶样品受到船上发动机排出烟尘污染的影响。该系统还具防海水降雨、防腐蚀、结构牢固、流量稳定及抗风能力强等优点。系统采用单片机控制信号的采集、处理和显示,配有温度和压力补偿编程设定以及断电保护、自动修复等功能。海洋现场使用表明,该系统设计合理、数据可靠、灵敏度高,可满足海上大容量气溶胶采样要求。     

A GIS modelling framework to evaluate marine spatial planning scenarios: Co-location of offshore wind farms and aquaculture in the German EEZ

The concept of co-location of marine areas receives an increased significance in the light of sustainable development in the already heavily used offshore marine realm. Within this study, different spatial co-location scenarios for the coupling of offshore aquacultures and wind farms are evaluated in order to support efficient and sustainable marine spatial management strategies. A Geographic Information System (GIS) and multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) techniques were combined to index suitable co-sites in the German exclusive economic zone of the North Sea. The MCE was based on criteria such as temperature, salinity or oxygen. In total, 13 possible aquaculture candidates (seaweed, bivalves, fish and crustaceans) were selected for the scenario configuration. The GIS modelling framework proved to be powerful in defining potential co-location sites. The aquaculture candidate oarweed (Laminaria digitata) revealed the highest suitability scores at 10–20 m depth from April to June, followed by haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) at 20–30 m depth and dulse (Palmaria palmata) and Sea belt (Saccharina latissima) at 0–10 m depth between April and June. In summary, results showed several wind farms were de facto suitable sites for aquaculture since they exhibited high suitability scores for Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) systems combining fish species, bivalves and seaweeds. The present results illustrate how synergies may be realised between competing needs of both offshore wind energy and offshore IMTA in the German EEZ of the North Sea. This might offer guidance to stakeholders and assist decision-makers in determining the most suitable sites for pilot projects using IMTA techniques.