Marine renewables and coastal communities—Experiences from the offshore oil industry in the 1970s and their relevance to marine renewables in the 2010s

Ambition to create jobs and economic growth from the vast open spaces of the oceans and seas is made real by new and developing technologies. In the 2010s, renewable energy generated from wind, wave and tide is laying claim to large areas of marine space and driving the search to find new ways to manage ocean and coastal development. Many more activities are expected and precedents are currently being set for the future of marine governance. Several observers have drawn parallels with the development of offshore oil and gas in the 1970s, which also represented a step change in use of the seas and coasts. The change was particularly felt in the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos, at the centre of the North Sea oilfields. Special powers were granted to the county councils here to control development and share in its benefits. This paper compares the oil and renewables industries, separated in time by nearly 40 years, and their influence on adjacent communities. The similarities and differences are identified to test the hypothesis that the 1970s oil model of local participation could be repeated for the development of marine renewables in the 2010s. The conclusion is that the model could well be applied but that the political and policy drivers of today make it unlikely, at least for the time being. Most notably, the change in the role of the public and private sectors and the use of market instruments to achieve national objectives tend to favour a climate of central control.     

Predatory fish and their prey — an overview of trophic interactions in the fish communities of the west and south coasts of South Africa

Fish communities over continental shelves are of three types: pelagic, rocky reef and soft substrata. The pelagic community of the South African west coast is dominated by clupeiform fish, which are the principal prey of snoek, the dominant piscivorous teleost in the area, and other fish, including tuna and pelagic sharks. Keystone prey species are broadly similar on the South African south and west coasts, but predator composition differs. Studies of rocky reef fish suggest that the fauna of the South Coast is more diverse than that of the West, the West Coast having fewer species and only two reef fish species being taken in linefisheries. Feeding interactions of some of the dominant species have been established, but the status of commercially less important fish such as elasmobranchs and small species is poorly known. The community and feeding interactions of fish living over soft substrata are better known and part of this fauna is taken by demersal trawlers. The two species of Cape hake dominate the communities on both coasts, but the fauna is more diverse on the Cape south coast. Generally, much of the present ichthyological knowledge is derived from the ecologically narrow perspective of commercial fisheries. Nevertheless, the patterns of diversity appear to conform to previous work, which has indicated a lower species diversity in the Atlantic than in the Indian Ocean. Knowledge of commercially unimportant fish is fragmentary, and understanding of the ecological interactions on the South Coast generally lags that of the West.     

Cloning and sequence analysis of the partial sequence of the rbcL from Bryopsis hypnoides

1 IntroductionRibulose-1,5-bisphosphatecarboxylase/oxygenase(EC 4.1.1.39;Rubisco) plays an important role in photo-synthetic carbon fixation by controlling the initial stageof the Calvin cycle and possessing the functions of bothCO2 fixation and ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate (RuBP)oxygenation. Rubisco is composed of eight large andeight small subunits in higher plants and green algae,and the large subunit is encoded by chloroplast genomeand the small subunit by nuclear genome. The gene en-cod…     

Service vessel activity in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico in support of the oil and gas industry using AIS data, 2009–2010

Offshore exploration and production in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico is supported by a large number of service vessels characterized by complex logistical patterns and demand points distributed across an expansive geographic area. No quantitative data on the spatial and temporal distributions of service vessel activity in the region is available due to the size, complexity and dynamics of the network. The purpose of this paper is to apply Automatic Identification System position data to quantify service vessel activity in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico from 2009 to 2010. A total of 1.1 million vessel arrivals and departures were recorded in 2009–2010, and in 2010, the number of vessel events increased by 40% due in part to the Macondo oil spill and cleanup response. Port-to-port movements comprise the majority of events and about 30% of activity relates to movements offshore. Port Fourchon, Venice, New Orleans, Sabine-Neches, and Lake Charles were the most active ports during the period. A detailed breakdown of vessel counts and the limitations of the analysis are outlined.     

The spreading of eutrophication in the eastern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia,northern Baltic Sea – An analysis in time and space

In the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Bothnia is the only sub-basin with only minor effects of eutrophication mainly due to physical factors. Most evaluations of the state of the Gulf of Bothnia are based on offshore investigations. In the present study the coastal zone of the eastern Gulf of Bothnia is analysed. Long-term data (1980–2007) of total nitrogen and phosphorus, turbidity and oxygen are analysed using principal component analysis (PCA) for spatial and temporal patterns in the trophic situation. The coastal zone is divided into six regions: inner and outer areas of the Bothnian Sea and the Quark, and the outer areas of the southern and northern Bothnian Bay. The results show a degradation of water quality from north to south, and from outer to inner coastal areas. Eutrophication changes from an almost non-existing problem in the Bothnian Bay in the north to clear signs of nutrient over-enrichment in the Bothnian Sea. This shows that even if eutrophication in the Gulf of Bothnia is not serious, the increasing trends in nutrient levels should be seen as warning signals for the future, and remedies to combat eutrophication should be taken rapidly.     

Connections or conflict? A social and economic analysis of the interconnections between the professional fishing industry,recreational fishing and marine tourism in coastal communities in NSW,Australia

Resource conflict is a common feature of coastal management. This conflict is often managed by using spatial planning tools to segregate uses, with access decisions made through a comparison of the economic costs and benefits of the competing sectors. These comparisons rarely include an in-depth analysis of the extent or nature of the conflict. One commonly experienced form of resource conflict in coastal communities involves professional fishing, recreational fishing and broader coastal tourism. In New South Wales, Australia the professional fishing industry is often seen as being in conflict with recreational fishing and tourism, and there are frequent calls to close areas to professional fishing, arguing that this will provide improved economic benefits to local communities. This research examined the relationships between the three sectors using economic valuations, qualitative interviews and a large-scale representative questionnaire of the general public. The results revealed highly interconnected and mutually supportive relationships, with professional fishing providing a range of services that benefit both tourism and recreational fishing. These results suggest that spatial management exercises that seek to segregate or remove one sector from an area, may be counterproductive to the interests of all these groups. Relying on economic valuations of each sector as if they stand alone is insufficient to adequately understand their roles in local communities. Resource allocation decisions should be based on evaluations that consider the interconnections between sectors, and consider whether negotiated sharing of resources may provide greater community benefits than excluding certain groups of users.     

Market-oriented regional fisheries management—an analysis of four fish regions in the North Atlantic

What influence do exchange methods have on ex-vessel prices and what are the potential implications for the regional management of the fisheries? This paper undertakes an empirical analysis of exchange methods and ex-vessel prices for specific demersal fish controlled for fish size and quantity in four North Atlantic regions, including Iceland, North-Norway and Scotland. The methodology consists of a comparative analysis of total average price (TAP) and Anova analysis of monthly average prices of cod and plaice landed fresh during the period 1990–1999. Scotland's auctions have the highest TAPs for the species analysed whilst the lowest TAPs are returned from contract sales in Iceland and North-Norway. Icelandic auctions and Møre–Romsdal auctions adopt intermediate positions in this price hierarchy. Price differences are still present even when correcting for factors such as legal barriers, transport costs from different geographical locations, exchange fees and seasonal variations in supplies. The implications of these findings for current and prospective systems of regional resource and coastal management are then considered and the scope and need for further study is established.     

The cluster analysis of the water masses in western Taiwan Strait from hydrologic and chemical factors

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Will regionalisation improve fisheries management in the EU? An analysis of the Swedish eel management plan reflects difficulties

In response to the shortcomings of the EU's Common Fisheries Policy, the European Commission has suggested regionalising fisheries management. Examples already exist of the more decentralised management of certain fisheries. Since 2007, the Commission has requested national eel management plans (EMPs) from all EU eel-fishing nations, giving national management bodies considerable freedom to develop their own EMPs. To examine the prerequisites for decentralisation, the Swedish EMP was chosen as a case. The European eel is critically endangered due to overfishing and environmental degradation. Analysis of the Swedish EMP reveals serious flaws: the conflict between the objectives of species and fishery preservation has not been clarified nor is the prioritisation clear. The plan has not been critically reviewed and alternative options are not considered. Though the basic data are uncertain, this uncertainty is viewed as support for not adopting any safety margin. Management is therefore directed towards mitigating the negative effects of fishing and other human activities rather than realising the conservation objective. The efficiency of the various protection measures is also disputable; for example, translocation is problematic, as translocated (i.e., stocked) eels display impaired navigational abilities. Another problematic aspect of this conservation strategy is the slow implementation of the EMP. In conclusion, this study emphasises the necessity of legal and social science as well as natural science research to evaluate the efficiency and implementation of fishery management.     

What role do beds of submerged macrophytes play in structuring estuarine fish assemblages? Lessons from a warm-temperate South African estuary

Habitat variability is one of the factors influencing species richness within estuarine systems, and a loss of habitat can result in a restructuring of the estuarine ichthyofaunal assemblage, particularly if these conditions persist over long time periods. The potential effects of the loss of extensive submerged macrophyte beds (Ruppia cirrhosa and Potamogeton pectinatus) on an estuarine fish assemblage were investigated through an analysis of a long-term seine net catch dataset from the temporarily open/closed East Kleinemonde Estuary, South Africa. Catch data for a 12-year period, encompassing six years of macrophyte presence and six years of macrophyte senescence, indicated that the loss of this habitat did not influence species richness but changes in the relative abundance of certain species were evident. A shift in dominance from vegetation-associated species to those associated with sandy environments (e.g. members of the family Mugilidae) was observed. However, species wholly dependent on macrophytes such as the critically endangered estuarine pipefish Syngnathus watermeyeri were only recorded during years when macrophyte beds were present, while vegetation-associated species such as the sparid Rhabdosargus holubi persisted at lower levels of relative abundance. The reduced abundance of all vegetation-associated fish species during years of macrophyte senescence was probably reflective of declining food resources resulting from the loss of macrophyte beds and/or increased vulnerability to predation. Submerged beds of aquatic plants are therefore important habitats within temporarily open/closed estuaries, South Africa’s dominant estuary type.     

What are the major global threats and impacts in marine environments? Investigating the contours of a shared perception among marine scientists from the bottom-up.

Marine scientists broadly agree on which major processes influence the sustainability of marine environments worldwide. Recent studies argue that such shared perceptions crucially shape scientific agendas and are subject to a confirmation bias. Based on these findings a more explicit engagement with scientists’ (shared) perceptions of global change in marine environments is called for. This paper takes stock of the shared understanding in marine science of the most pertinent, worldwide threats and impacts that currently affect marine environments. Using results from an email survey among leading academics in marine science this article explores if a shared research agenda in relation to global change in marine environments exists. The analysis demonstrates that marine scientists across disciplines are largely in agreement on some common features of global marine change. Nevertheless, the analysis also highlights where natural and social scientists diverge in their assessment. The article ends discussing what these findings imply for further improvement of interdisciplinary marine science.     

Has the value of global marine and coastal ecosystem services changed?

In 1997, Robert Costanza and his colleagues published a groundbreaking study [1] that estimated the monetary value of the contribution of the world's ecosystems to human wellbeing. The methods used were cited as preliminary and received considerable criticism [2], [3]. In two more recent peer-reviewed studies [4], [5], the authors update the original estimates of ecosystem service value and find: (1) that original per area ecosystem service values were underestimated and (2) using these revised per area values, the total global value of ecosystem services has declined. Just under ninety-five percent of the estimated loss in ecosystem service value comes from revisions by the authors in the value estimates of marine ecosystem services. These revisions include additional per area value estimates of coral reefs and coastal wetlands that are many times the value of estimates used in the original analysis. The reasons cited by Costanza et al. for the increases in revised value estimates are examined and rejected. The data are found to be insufficient for a rigorous estimate of the global value of marine ecosystems services.     

Distribution and abundance of demersal fish from trawl stations in the bay of plenty,New Zealand, 1961–63

Between March 1961 and January 1963 trawling surveys were carried out in the Bay of Plenty. Seasonal comparisons of catch weight were made for the four commercially important species, snapper, tarakihi, trevally, and gurnard, during 1962–63. Only trevally showed any marked seasonal variation in total catch. Tarakihi were most abundant in waters over 50 fathoms and snapper, trevally, and gurnard were most abundant in shallower depths. The best return for fishing effort came from the middle sector of the Bay. There was a marked absence of undersized tarakihi and trevally from the catches. A species composition list for the Bay of Plenty waters and a table of species abundance at the stations sampled has been compiled from the trawl catch data.     

The role of the capture fisheries and aquaculture sectors in the Korean national economy: An input–output analysis

The aquaculture industry can meet food security needs and reduce the pressure on marine resources. The expansion of aquaculture allows the fisheries industry to restructure from hunting to farming, and thus drives the need for an analysis of the economic impacts of aquaculture industry in consideration of the interdependence between capture fisheries and aquaculture industry. This study attempts to analyze the economic impacts of two fishery sectors using input–output (I–O) analysis, with specific application to Korea. To this end, this study applies the I–O models to the Korean I–O tables generated by the Bank of Korea, paying particular attention to the two fishery sectors in Korea, considering them as exogenous, and then determining their impacts. Specifically, the production-inducing effects, employment-inducing effects, supply shortage effects, sectoral price effects, forward linkage effects, and backward linkage effects of the two fishery sectors are presented over the period 1995–2010. For example, the production-inducing effect of a KRW 1.0 change in fisheries investment is larger in the petroleum and chemical sectors than in other sectors. Moreover, the aquaculture sector has larger employment-inducing effects than the capture fisheries. Finally, the potential uses of the results of this analysis are presented from the perspective of policy instruments, and policy implications are discussed.     

Are marine reserves and non-consumptive activities compatible? A global analysis of marine reserve regulations

Marine reserves are places where wildlife and habitats are protected from extractive and depositional uses of the sea. Although considered to be the pinnacle in marine conservation, many permit non-consumptive activities with little or no regulation. This paper examines the potential impacts of 16 non-consumptive activities including scuba diving, sailing, scientific research and motor boating, and how they might compromise the conservation objectives of marine reserves. Examination of 91 marine reserves from 36 countries found little agreement or consistency in what non-consumptive activities are permitted in marine reserves and how they are regulated. The two most common activities allowed without regulation were swimming (mentioned in 80% of marine reserves and allowed in 63% of these) and kayaking (mentioned in 85%, allowed in 53%). Scuba diving was mentioned in 91% and allowed without regulation in 41%. A risk score for the likely level of threat to wildlife and/or habitats that each activity could produce was then assigned based on effects reported in the literature. The risk analysis suggests that motor boating and activities which include or require it have a high potential to negatively impact wildlife and habitats if inadequately managed. Hence protection against extractive or depositional activities alone is insufficient to secure the high standard of protection usually assumed in marine reserves. For this to be achieved activities typically considered as benign must receive appropriate management, especially with increasing recreational use.     

Beyond sustainability: is government obliged to increase economic benefit from fisheries in the face of industry resistance?

Substantial economic opportunities have been identified in many Australian fisheries but may remain unimplemented due to the perception that the role of government is to ensure harvests are biologically sustainable, while economic decisions should be left to the commercial industry. This paper explores the role of government in driving changes that increase revenue and profit from fisheries (termed economic benefit). Australian fisheries resources are managed by eight different jurisdictions. While each have separate legislation, there is invariably a responsibility to manage on behalf of, and to the benefit of the public, who are the owners of the resource. This paper uses case studies to explore how government can struggle to determine the public interest, separate this from private interests and then implement management changes to ensure the public utility is maximised. Common problems were: (i) overarching economic objectives, which define who should benefit, were often ambiguous and open to interpretation; (ii) the public interest was usually abstract and often under-represented in decision-making processes, (in contrast to industry, who have direct representation); (iii) special interest groups were often able to lobby against changes; and (iv) government was often reluctant to seize opportunities to increase economic benefit when there was significant industry opposition to management changes. In drawing attention to these challenges and how they have been overcome historically, it is argued that government has both a role and requirement under their legislative objectives to take the lead in implementing measures that increase the economic benefit from Australian fisheries.     

Aquaculture and the poor-Is the culture of high-value fish a viable livelihood option for the poor?

This study evaluates the role of high-value fish culture in the livelihoods of coastal households in southern Thailand. The study shows that grouper culture, promoted as an alternative to destructive fishing practices, can make a substantial contribution to household incomes. However, fishing and aquaculture play contrasting roles in the livelihoods of coastal fishers and should be considered as complementary rather than alternative occupations. The study found that poorer households can benefit significantly from raising grouper in cages if certain conditions are met, including access to credit and the substitution of financial for natural capital.     

Indicators and impact analysis of sediment from the Changjiang Estuary and East China Sea to

Based on the historical evolution of the Hangzhou Bay, by making use of the conclusions made by the previous research workers and the integration of concrete data, five distinct impact indicators of the sediment from the Changjiang Estuary and the East China Sea to the Hangzhou Bay are summarized. Numerical calculation and analysis indicate that the scouring and deposition of seabed in the Hangzhou Bay are subject to the direct impact of the evolution of the Changjiang Estuary, and the growth and decline and the direction of the sandy bar at Nanhuizui give traces to the sediment transport between the Changjiang Estuary and the Hangzhou Bay. The transport of sediment from the Changjiang Estuary to the Hangzhou Bay occurs mainly in winter and spring seasons and the increase of the Changjiang River runoff and the decrease of sediment charge have caused scouring in the northern coast of the Hangzhou Bay and the seabed erosion along the frontal margin of the Changjiang River Delta.     

Why do fishermen discard? Distribution and quantification of the causes of discards in the Southern Bay of Biscay passive gear fisheries

In the context of the Common Fisheries Policy reform, the need for decreasing discards has been highlighted in discussions on the implementation of a discard ban. While most of the research has focused on the quantification of discards by species and métier, identification and quantification of the causes of discards have received little attention. This study presents the results of on-board surveys conducted in the Southern Bay of Biscay fleets of netters and longliners. A large variability of discards was observed. It is also shown that in these passive gear fisheries the main reasons for discarding put forward by fishermen are, firstly, market-related and, secondly, quality-related; discards related to the application of regulations are minor. The results therefore illustrate that decisions to discard can also occur in highly selective fisheries because of economic constraint and the results also show that a part is discarded alive.