Comparative analysis of factors influencing spatial distributions of marine protected areas and territorial use rights for fisheries in Japan

As increasingly large extents of the global oceans are being managed through spatial measures, it is important to identify area characteristics underlying network distributions. Studies discerning spatial patterns in marine management have disproportionately focused on global networks. This paper instead considers the single country context of Japan to illuminate within-country drivers of area-based conservation and fishery management. A dataset containing potentially relevant socioeconomic, environmental, and fisheries factors was assembled and used to model prefecture-level counts of marine protected areas (MPAs) and territorial use rights for fisheries (TURFs) throughout Japan's waters. Several factors were found to significantly influence the number of TURFs in a particular area, whereas MPA patterns of use remain largely unexplained. TURFs are frequently noted as more suitable for managing fisheries of low mobility species and our analysis finds greater use of TURFs in areas that rely heavily on benthic catch. The number of trading ports was also found to be positively related to TURF distributions, suggesting economic infrastructure may influence the use of this fisheries management tool. In-line with global analyses, MPA patterns of use were not found to be significantly related to any of the potential explanatory variables after correcting for the number of statistical comparisons that were carried out. Differences in our ability to model the use of TURFs and MPAs may arise due to the narrower objectives associated with the former (e.g., income, employment) in comparison to the often broad and varied goals that motivate use of the latter.     

Catch share programs in developing countries: A survey of the literature

The literature on catch shares is dominated by analyses of programs in developed countries. To address this research gap, this paper identifies and discusses programs in developing countries. The paper also investigates differences between countries that have and have not implemented programs across a number of relevant dimensions, including governance and resource value, and characterizes the relationship between catch share type (e.g., quota-based or space-based systems) and the species characteristics. The paper identifies programs in about 20 percent of coastal and developing countries and finds that countries with catch shares have higher governance rankings, stronger economies, more valuable fishery export industries, and fewer people employed in fisheries. For example, the average governance effectiveness rank is 38.7 for all coastal and developing countries and 60.8 for countries with quota-based fishing rights. Species managed under quota-based systems are also found to have the potential for strong recruitment externalities. The results support ideas from the fisheries economics literature on the pre-conditions that are more likely to lead to the adoption of a catch share program.     

Determining primary and companion species in a multi-species fishery: Implications for TAC setting

The use of ITQ management in multi-species fisheries has been the subject of much debate and the complexities and difficulties of managing multi-species fisheries are well known. A major problem is that the species mix in fishery catches may not necessarily match the mix in combined TACs or in quota holdings. While a number of solutions have been proposed or implemented to improve transferability of quota and other incentives to reduce over-quota fishing and discarding, it is surprising that there has been little focus on TAC-setting itself and coordinating this across multiple species/stocks as a means of dealing with some of these issues. In this paper, data were analysed from the trawl sector of the Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery to determine the relationship between primary species and companion species and the implications this has for TAC setting. The primary species is the species being considered when setting an individual species TAC. The companion species are ones that should also be considered when setting the TAC of the primary species, because a considerable proportion of the primary species catch is taken as a companion species non-target catch. The target species in each fishing operation was determined and was used to characterize recent multi-species catch data into primary and companion components. This approach provides an empirical means to examine the impact of individual species TAC decisions across all of the quota species in a fishery.     

Fishery cooperatives and the Pacific Whiting Conservation Cooperative: Lessons and application to non-industrial fisheries in the Western Pacific

The last 20 years have seen a fundamental shift in fishery management from reliance on open access and regulated open access to systems based on individual user rights. In some cases, the allocation of harvest rights to defined harvest or community sectors has served as a catalyst to drive the formation of voluntary agreements among fishermen in creating self-governed systems of catch shares. A number of voluntary cooperatives including the Pacific Whiting Conservation Cooperative – which served as the model for the American Fisheries Act – provide examples of self-governing systems which have successfully achieved management objectives including greater economic performance, equity, and conservation. Cooperative arrangements have functioned to devolve some of the responsibilities of management to the cooperative – allowing fishermen greater operational flexibility in achieving individual or community goals, while reducing the burden of management on formal managing bodies. Analysis of voluntary cooperatives shows that their success is based on the existence of certain core conditions including relatively small homogeneous groups of players, secure sector-allocated and divisible rights, and the ability to form binding contracts among coop members. Cooperatives, however, face a number of internal and external threats that can undermine their success and existence. Whether voluntary or designed through regulation, cooperatives may be a promising approach for addressing challenges in non-industrial fisheries in the United States including the Western Pacific – especially if coupled with user rights based on geography, territory, and culture. However, the sheer geographical size and cultural diversity of regions such as the Western Pacific suggests that no single approach may be appropriate throughout the entire region.     

Stakeholder perspectives on ecosystem-based management of the Antarctic krill fishery

Information about stakeholder aspirations is a fundamental requirement for ecosystem-based management, but the detail is often elusive, and debates may focus on simplistic opposing positions. This is exemplified by the Antarctic krill fishery, which, despite a current operational catch limit equivalent to just 1% of the estimated biomass and actual annual catches much lower than this, is the subject of a high-profile debate framed around ambiguous concepts such as sustainability. Q methodology was applied to explore the detailed views of representatives of three stakeholder sectors (the fishing industry, conservation-focused non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and scientists from seven countries involved in research on the krill-based ecosystem). The analysis distinguished two clear groupings, one of which included the views of all NGO participants while the other included the views of fishing industry participants and a subset of the scientists. Key differences between the groups included the priority given to different management measures, and to continued commercial fishing. However, the results also revealed considerable overlap between viewpoints. Both groups prioritised the maintenance of ecosystem health and recognised the importance of defining management objectives. Also, neither group prioritised a decrease in catch limits. This suggests that most participants in the study agree that management should improve but do not perceive a major problem in the ecosystem's ability to support current catch levels. Cooperation to identify shared management objectives based on stakeholder aspirations for the ecosystem might enhance progress, whereas polarised discussions about preferred management measures or ambiguous concepts are likely to impede progress.     

Evaluating impacts of pulse fishing on the effectiveness of seasonal closure

Seasonal fishing closures are often used in fisheries management to conserve overfished stocks.As one of the unintended consequences,fishermen often contend for maximizing catches immediately after reopening fisheries.The resultant large catch landings in a short time period(i.e.,pulse fishing)may undermine the benefit of closure.We implemented an end-to-end model OSMOSE-JZB(Object-oriented Simulator of Marine ec OSystem Exploitation OSMOSE)modelling ecosystem in the Jiaozhou Bay located in China to evaluate the impact of pulse fishing on the effectiveness of seasonal closure at levels of fish community,population,and individual.Our study demonstrated that the three-month closure was successful in conserving fish stocks.There were small variations on ecological indicators(i.e.,total biomass of the community,mean trophic level of the community,mean trophic level of the catch,and Shannon-Wiener biodiversity index)when pulse fishing occurred.Pulse fishing seemed not to result in a great shift in community structure.Compared to other species,the biomass of two large predatory fishes were more susceptible to pulse fishing.Pulse fishing could change the pressure of predators to fish stocks via food webs,especially for young individuals.Our simulations indicate that we can improve the effectiveness of seasonal closure by managing pulse fishing.Although the results derived in this study may be specific to the target ecosystem,the general approach is applicable to other ecosystems when evaluating fishing impacts.     

Evolution of operational management procedures for the South African West Coast rock lobster (Jasus lalandii) fishery

The commercial fishery for Jasus lalandii, the South Africa West Coast rock lobster, began in the late 1800s and at its peak in the early 1950s yielded an annual catch of 18 000 t. Although this annual catch has dropped to only some 2000 t over recent years, the fishery remains South Africa's third most valuable for landed value. The primary reason for the low total allowable catch (TAC) over these recent years has been a marked drop in somatic growth rate that occurred at the end of the 1980s, for reasons that remain unexplained. A key problem in formulating TAC recommendations with longer‐term objectives in mind, has been uncertainties about likely future trends, particularly in somatic growth and recruitment. To address this problem, an “operational management procedure” (OMP) was adopted in 1997 and has twice been re‐evaluated and modified (in 2000 and 2003) in the light of further data and changing perceptions of resource dynamics. The history of this process is reviewed, concentrating on the most recent modification. In particular, a summary is given of the process by which the merits of alternative management procedures were evaluated over a range of important uncertainties about the dynamics of the resource. This summary includes a discussion of the key trade‐offs between resource rebuilding, future TAC trends and TAC variability, and the eventual choice that was made. The paper concludes by listing a number of lessons learnt concerning best practice for OMP development as this process evolved.     

An appeal for a code of conduct for marine conservation

Marine conservation actions are promoted to conserve natural values and support human wellbeing. Yet the quality of governance processes and the social consequences of some marine conservation initiatives have been the subject of critique and even human rights complaints. These types of governance and social issues may jeopardize the legitimacy of, support for and long-term effectiveness of marine conservation. Thus, we argue that a clearly articulated and comprehensive set of social standards - a code of conduct - is needed to guide marine conservation. In this paper, we draw on the results of an expert meeting and scoping review to present key principles that might be taken into account in a code of conduct, to propose a draft set of foundational elements for inclusion in a code of conduct, to discuss the benefits and challenges of such a document, and to propose next steps to develop and facilitate the uptake of a broadly applicable code of conduct within the marine conservation community. The objectives of developing such a code of conduct are to promote fair conservation governance and decision-making, socially just conservation actions and outcomes, and accountable conservation practitioners and organizations. The uptake and implementation of a code of conduct would enable marine conservation to be both socially acceptable and ecologically effective, thereby contributing to a truly sustainable ocean.     

Social,economic and trade characteristics of the elasmobranch fishery on Unguja Island,Zanzibar, East Africa

Understanding the socio-economic drivers underpinning fishers' decisions to target elasmobranchs is considered vital in determining sustainable management objectives for these species, yet limited empirical data is collected. This study presents an overview of elasmobranch catch, trade and socio-economic characteristics of Zanzibar's small-scale, artisanal fishery. The value of applying this information to future elasmobranch fisheries policy is demonstrated. In August 2015, interviews were conducted with fishers (n = 39) and merchants (n = 16) at two landing sites, Kizimkazi-Dimbani and Mkokotoni, along with the main market site in Stone Town. Additionally, elasmobranch catches were recorded across the same locations between June and August 2015. Elasmobranchs were listed as target species by 49% of fishers interviewed. Whilst most fishers (n = 30) stated that 76–100% of their household income came from fishing, there was variation in how elasmobranch catch and trade contributed. One-third of fishers (n = 36) that caught and sold elasmobranchs reported that 41–60% of their income came from elasmobranch catch. However, for some fishers (n = 8) elasmobranch catch represented 0–20% of their income, whilst for others (n = 4) it represented 81–100%. Differences in fisheries income and elasmobranch price could be attributed to several interacting factors including season, weather, fishing effort, fishing gear, target catch and consumer demand. Further, elasmobranch price was influenced by size and species. The study revealed information on catch, trade, markets and socio-economy that is important for future research, conservation and management of elasmobranchs and fisheries in Zanzibar. The methods utilised have potential for broader application to understudied, artisanal elasmobranch fisheries in the western Indian Ocean.     

Design principles for individual transferable quotas

Individual transferable quota (ITQ) institutions should be designed to minimize two types of transaction costs. First, to minimize the costs of transferring ITQ rights among rights-holders and users, rights should be separated into three components: a permanent entitlement share, an annual catch allocation, and a license to fish. Second, ITQ rights can reduce the transactions costs for development of self-governance by owners both by specifying a non-unanimous voting rule (preferably one-share/one-vote) and also by delineating clear standards for devolution of responsibility from government. These same two principles for reduction of transactions costs can be applied, with slight variation, to individual transferable input systems.     

The effect of fishing the anguillid elver (Anguilla japonica) on the fishery of the Yangtze estuary

Based on the fishing net surveying data about anguillid elver of the Yangtze estuary collected in 2006 and historical data from previous research of the region, this study was focused on analyzing the fishing effort and catch variations of the elver, revealing the effects on fishery resources caused by elver fishing activities. It was found that the elver fishing activities took place in the tidal area of the Yangtze estuary from January to April. The yearly elver catch in 2000–2006 was 3 times greater than that in the 1970s–1980s. The catch per unit effort (CPUE) (ind./net/day) of the elver had some characteristics of temporal variation. It was higher in spring tide periods than that in neap tide periods, and the CPUE in February and March was 3–4 times greater than that in January. Twenty-eight fish species, 6 shrimp species, 2 crab species and 8 other invertebrates were found in the by-catch of the eel nets. Among the fishes, shrimps and crabs, the individual proportion of fishes is the highest, and they are mostly juveniles or small-size fishes, while the shrimps and crabs also make up a certain proportion. Most of the individuals in the by-catch were juveniles and were dead when they were harvested. It was proven that the activity of elver fishing has a great negative effect on regional fishery resources, though it has brought great commercial benefit. Relevant management and conversation should be reinforced.     

The continued decline in the world catch of marine fish

This brief note is an update to the authors' "The Expansion, Limit and Decline of the Global Marine Fish Catch," published in the September 2012 issue of Marine Policy. That paper examined the steady increase in the world's catch from 1950 to 1989, its slight decline and rise to a final peak in 1996. This limit has been followed by a steady decline to 2010. Since there have been improvements in the technology of fishing and no reason to believe that there has been a reduction in fishing effort, then the apparent limit and subsequent decline in the catch suggests a reduction in the supply of fish and invertebrates in the world's oceans. The earlier paper also noted the geographic shift in the world's catch to Asia and the rise of China to become the world's largest catcher of fish.     

Bycatch of high sea longline fisheries and measures taken by Taiwan: Actions and challenges

Taiwan is a major longline fishing nation with an interest in proactive conservation measures. Facing global concerns about the incidental catch in longline fisheries, Taiwan has focused on bycatch issues since the 2000s. This paper reviews the existing information on bycatch and the actions taken by Taiwan in the past ten years, including the establishment of observer programs, education and outreach, adoption of national plans of action and publicizing regulations for mitigation measures. This review suggests that continuing and improving the observer program, ensuring the compliance of mitigation measures, and encouraging information exchange and international cooperation will contribute to the conservation of non-commercial species of concern.     

Are input controls required in individual transferable quota fisheries to address ecosystem based fisheries management objectives?

This study examined the use of Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) to effectively manage fishing impacts on all ecosystem components, as required under Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management (EBFM) principles. A consequence of changing from input controls to output-based (catch) management is that the control of the regulating authority tends to be reduced, which may affect the outcomes for ecosystem management. This study reviewed the use of input controls across six fishing methods in 18 ITQ fisheries, which have been independently accredited as ecologically sustainable by the Marine Stewardship Council (12 fisheries) or under Australian environmental legislation for Wildlife Trade Operation (six fisheries). Input controls were retained across a range of ITQ fisheries, with non-selective fisheries such as trawl, gillnet and line employing more input controls than selective fisheries such as purse-seine, pot/trap and dredge. Further case-studies confirmed the widespread and recent use of input controls (spatial and temporal closures) with the aim of managing ecosystem impacts of fishing. The retention of input controls, particularly closures affects the security (quality of title) characteristic of the fishing use right and the theoretical ability of fishers to manage their right for their future benefit. The security characteristic is weakened by closures through loss of access, which undermines industry trust and incentive for long-term decision making. By reducing the security of ITQs, individual fisher incentives and behaviour may separate from societal objectives for sustainability, which was one of the foremost reasons for introducing ITQ management.     

Managing catch of marine megafauna: Guidelines for setting limit reference points

Limit reference points (LRPs) for catch, which correspond to thresholds to undesirable population or ecosystem states, offer a consistent, objective approach to management evaluation and prioritization across fisheries, species, and jurisdictions. LRPs have been applied successfully to manage catch of some marine megafauna (elasmobranchs, marine reptiles, seabirds, and marine mammals) in some jurisdictions, such as the use of Potential Biological Removal (PBR) to manage incidental mortality of marine mammals under the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act. However, implementation of ecosystem-based management is still in its infancy globally, and LRPs have not yet been widely adopted for marine megafauna, particularly for incidental catch. Here, guidelines are proposed for estimating catch LRPs for marine megafauna, with particular attention to resolving common technical and political challenges, including (1) identifying management units, population thresholds, and risk tolerances that align with common conservation goals and best practices, (2) choosing catch LRP estimators, (3) estimating input parameters such as abundance and productivity, (4) handling uncertainty, and (5) dealing with mismatches between management jurisdictions and population boundaries. The problem of cumulative impacts across sectors is briefly addressed. These guidelines, grounded in marine policy, science, precedent, and lessons learned, should facilitate wider application of catch LRPs in evaluation and management of fisheries impacts on marine megafauna, in support of global commitments to conserve biodiversity and manage fisheries responsibly.     

National comprehensive approaches for rebuilding fisheries in South Korea

Korea's coastal and offshore fisheries have experienced reduction in their catch in the early 2000. The amount of catch from coastal and offshore fisheries dropped from 1.7 million tons in 1986 to 1 million tons in 2004. To address such catch reduction, fish stock enhancement programs have been constantly developed and implemented. However, as fish stocks have been estimated to decrease since 2000 in spite of various management measures, the Korean Government genuinely acknowledges the necessity to enhance fisheries productivity through the recovery of depleted fish stocks. Based on such acknowledgement, a fish stock rebuilding plan (FSRP) combined with conventional fish stock enhancement programs was established in 2005. For stocks which have shown drastic decrease, a FSRP was set up and promoted. So far, 10 FSRPs have been established and operated, and plan is being made to expand them to 20 species by 2012. The result of pilot projects shows that stocks have been increasing after the introduction of FSRPs. For instance, the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of sandfish in the East Sea has increased from 0.44 in 2005 to 0.78 in 2011. Consequently, fishing income has increased by 15%. The key lessons learned during the implementation of FSRP are: the causes for the decrease of stock vary and are complicated and it is necessary to adjust and eliminate some conventional policies that could have unforeseen negative impacts on fish stocks. The FSRP-based fisheries management policy in Korea carries great significance, for it has changed the focus of policy from simply maintaining the status quo to stock recovery and it allows relevant stakeholders to get actively involved in the procedures of establishing and promoting the plan, leading to effective implementation of the plan. The current FSRP is operated with species, but if it can be gradually expanded to encompass the whole ecosystem, it will greatly contribute to more effective management and fish stock recovery for all species in offshore and coastal waters surrounding Korea.     

Effect of rainfall as a component of climate change on estuarine fish production in Queensland, Australia

The speculation that climate change may impact on sustainable fish production suggests a need to understand how these effects influence fish catch on a broad scale. With a gross annual value of A$ 2.2 billion, the fishing industry is a significant primary industry in Australia. Many commercially important fish species use estuarine habitats such as mangroves, tidal flats and seagrass beds as nurseries or breeding grounds and have lifecycles correlated to rainfall and temperature patterns. Correlation of catches of mullet (e.g. Mugil cephalus) and barramundi (Lates calcarifer) with rainfall suggests that fisheries may be sensitive to effects of climate change. This work reviews key commercial fish and crustacean species and their link to estuaries and climate parameters. A conceptual model demonstrates ecological and biophysical links of estuarine habitats that influences capture fisheries production. The difficulty involved in explaining the effect of climate change on fisheries arising from the lack of ecological knowledge may be overcome by relating climate parameters with long-term fish catch data. Catch per unit effort (CPUE), rainfall, the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and catch time series for specific combinations of climate seasons and regions have been explored and surplus production models applied to Queensland's commercial fish catch data with the program CLIMPROD. Results indicate that up to 30% of Queensland's total fish catch and up to 80% of the barramundi catch variation for specific regions can be explained by rainfall often with a lagged response to rainfall events. Our approach allows an evaluation of the economic consequences of climate parameters on estuarine fisheries, thus highlighting the need to develop forecast models and manage estuaries for future climate change impact by adjusting the quota for climate change sensitive species. Different modelling approaches are discussed with respect to their forecast ability.     

Stakeholder perceptions of the northern Gulf of Mexico grouper and tilefish individual fishing quota program

The Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council determined that previous management of the grouper and tilefish fisheries in the northern Gulf of Mexico were not meeting management goals, and developed a catch shares program using individual fishing quotas (IFQs) beginning in January 2010 in order to more effectively manage these fisheries. An IFQ is a management method in which individual fishers and corporations are allocated the right to harvest a percentage of a fishery's total allowable catch, thus specifying how much of a particular species each fisher can harvest. This study makes use of a mail out survey to document the perceptions of fishers, seafood wholesalers, fisheries managers, and academics with an interest in the (northern) Gulf of Mexico grouper and tilefish IFQ program. While fishers, seafood dealers, fisheries managers, and academics all acknowledge that the IFQ program will create some problems, commercial fishers and dealers were far more skeptical of the alleged benefits of IFQs. Moreover, larger commercial operators were more inclined to agree with managers and academics that the IFQ program will produce several benefits for their operations and the fisheries. Some smaller operators believe that they will be driven to ignore the new rules or be forced out of business. In the future, the Gulf Council might do two things: put a bit more effort into making fishers aware of the potential benefits of IFQs, and develop alternatives with more flexibility perhaps working more closely with communities of fishers, who prize their independent way of life above all else.     

What factors affect the decision making process when setting TACs?: The case of Chilean fisheries

Although failures and successes in fisheries management are related to decision making processes, these are rarely analyzed in detail and even less often following quantitative or semi-quantitative approaches. Herein, we study the decision making process for Chile's most important fisheries using a binary decision model. This model evaluates the probability that an annual total allowable catch (TAC) will or will not be modified by the National Fisheries Council (NFC) based on biological, economic, and social factors. We also analyze some aspects of individual voting, particularly whether the members vote against or abstain from voting on the proposed TAC and if they prioritize resource conservation objectives. Our results indicate that the risk of over exploitation for many important stocks in Chile is aggravated by failures at the decision making level: the scientifically recommended TACs for those fisheries that generate higher levels of employment and have greater economic value are normally increased. This analysis shows that the NFC has clearly prioritized short-term economic and social objectives over resource conservation goals. We discuss the need to adjust the composition and functioning of the NFC in order to ensure long-term sustainability of the fisheries.     

Conflict over flying fish: The dispute between Trinidad & Tobago and Barbados

This paper explains the ongoing conflict between Trinidad & Tobago and Barbados over the right to catch flying fish off the coast of Tobago. The aim of the paper is to present the different scenarios arising from the conflict and to determine the best outcome for managing the flying fish. The history and current situation of the conflict is presented. The possible outcomes are evaluated with a framework developed in the paper. It is concluded that a negotiated agreement between the two countries gives the best result. Future negotiations should focus on developing a limited access program like Individual Transferable Quotas.