Who's who in the Kenai River Fishery SES: A streamlined method for stakeholder identification and investment analysis

The Kenai River Fishery is a unique social–ecological system (SES) with nearly 50 federal, state, local, and nonprofit groups influencing its political, ecological, and social structure. While ecological data exists for this fishery, the complexity of its stakeholder relationships has not been investigated. Stakeholder interactions can directly influence how science is integrated into management decisions and therefore affect the adaptive capacity of SES, such as the Kenai River Fishery. Drawing from the existing stakeholder literature, this methods identifies and ranks the key SES stakeholders and describes their roles. This study approached the question of which stakeholders should be included in a future SES adaptive capacity study by (1) identifying the key stakeholders within the Kenai River Fishery, (2) ranking each stakeholder’s investment within the fishery using eleven categories of interaction, and (3) using these eleven categories to characterize each stakeholder's role within the SES. The largest number of stakeholders fall into the secondary investment category, showing that a relatively small number of resource managers are interacting with a large number of diverse nonprofit organizations. The top ranking stakeholders in this study will be invited to attend participatory scenarios workshops that will build the foundation for a deeper scenarios-based analysis of SES adaptive capacity.     

The role of stakeholders in the marine planning process—Stakeholder analysis within the Solent, United Kingdom

England is about to embark on the introduction of an integrated approach to the management of its marine environment, known as marine planning. The management of human activity in the marine environment is a central function of marine planning; therefore, stakeholder involvement will be crucial for the successful development and subsequent implementation of marine plans. The range of stakeholder activities, their connection to the marine environment and interest in its management are likely to vary considerably on a local, regional and national scale. It is realistic to assume that it will not be possible to involve every stakeholder all the time; therefore in order to develop efficient and effective stakeholder involvement during the marine planning process it is sensible to determine who to involve, when to involve them, and how to involve them from the outset. This paper discusses the role of stakeholders in the marine planning process through consideration of the results of a stakeholder analysis, which was informed by primary data collated from stakeholders within the Solent. The paper concludes with a proposed mechanism, comprising different organisational units, for managing stakeholder involvement in the marine planning process.     

Resource use conflicts in Mabini and Tingloy,the Philippines

This paper presents the results of an analysis of resource use conflicts in areas near marine protected areas in Mabini–Tingloy, the Philippines. The author found large differences between groups of stakeholders in terms of perceived benefits and costs of conservation and tourism, and these inequalities have led to conflicts between various stakeholder groups. Marked by unequal power relationships, the conflicts place subsistence fishers as the weakest stakeholders. Fishers also have the lowest rates of knowledge of and participation in conservation activities. The study concludes that in order for conservation programs to be effectively transitioned onto the social and legal fabric of Mabini–Tingloy, resource use conflicts need immediate attention.     

Learning to learn: Designing monitoring plans in the Pacific Islands International Waters Project

Project monitoring is now a standard requirement in natural resource management programs, bringing opportunities for greater accountability, adaptive management and social learning. While considerable effort has gone into designing appropriate monitoring frameworks and indicators for marine and coastal management, there has been less sharing of the mechanics of approaches that maximise collaboration and learning by multiple stakeholders. This paper outlines the project monitoring approach developed in the Pacific Islands International Waters Project (IWP), a project funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) involving 14 Pacific Island Countries. We find that a monitoring approach based on indicators to assess supportive processes, behavioural change and human–environmental conditions is useful for monitoring the long- and short-term impacts associated with integrated coastal management programs. Giving project staff the lead in indicator development has supported more strategic project planning and improved the relevance and value of the indicators developed. However, successful implementation of monitoring programs calls for ongoing collaboration, technical support and capacity building amongst key stakeholders.     

Fishing for opinions: Stakeholder views on MSFD implementation in European Seas

Stakeholder participation is vital when introducing and implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) at any scale. This paper presents the results of a survey covering four European Regional Seas (Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and North-East Atlantic Ocean) aimed to collect stakeholders׳ perspectives on their Regional Sea governance to implement the European Union (EU) Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). In this survey, drivers of good governance including stakeholder involvement, willingness and capacity to cooperate, efficiency, institutional ambiguity and decision-making were explored. The results indicate a clear gap in perception between the current, the ideal and the foreseen situation regarding the implementation of the MSFD. The preferences for the future governance structures vary between stakeholders and across seas although some similarities can be found. Based on the results of the survey, this paper concludes that tailor-made rather than off-the-shelf solutions will be needed to accommodate regional cooperation in the European marine environment for implementing ecosystem-based management under the MSFD.     

The engagement of stakeholders in the marine spatial planning process

Due to the interdependency that exists between the ecosystem resources and its users, successful implementation of ecosystem-based management depends on the identification and understanding of different stakeholders, their practices, expectations and interests. Today, many scientists and resource managers agree that the involvement of stakeholders is a key factor for a successful management regime in the marine environment. The way stakeholders are involved in the process must reflect, or at least address, the existing complexity of the specific context. A comprehensive method that allows doing this is by use of stakeholder analysis and mapping. This article will focus on the various types and stages of stakeholder participation in a marine spatial planning process, and will illustrate how to conduct a stakeholder analysis that allows the involvement of stakeholders in an adequate way that is sustainable over time.     

Regional cooperation for European seas: Governance models in support of the implementation of the MSFD

During the implementation process of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), Member States are expected to cooperate and coordinate at the regional sea level as wells as arrange stakeholder involvement. However, the MSFD does not specify any governing structures to do so. The aim of this paper is to address these key challenges of the MSFD by developing four governance models for regional cooperation and assess their impact on governance performance. The four models are based on the building blocks of stakeholder involvement (low or high) and decision-making power (binding or non-binding decisions): (1) Cross-border platforms; (2) Regional Sea Convention-PLUS; (3) Advisory Alliance and (4) Regional Sea Assembly. Secondly, the paper will do an ex ante assessment on how the alternative models will have an impact on governance performance. The assessment criteria for governance performance are: (a) costs to set up and run a model; (b) capacity to cooperate; (c) policy coordination; (d) institutional ambiguity; and (e) implementation drift. In addition to this assessment of the performance based on expert judgement (i.e. scientists of WP7 of the ODEMM project), 4 roundtable discussions have been undertaken in which stakeholders from the four regional seas did an assessment of the four models. The main conclusion is that increasing stakeholder participation, a much desired development in regional organisation of marine management as expressed by the stakeholder community, will increase the costs of the policy making process. If stakeholder participation is not embedded in a wider institutional setting in which the participation of stakeholders is directly related to the policy process and the degree to which decisions taken are binding, the increase of costs does not lead to a more smoothly running model.     

Stakeholders’ expectations towards a proposed marine protected area: A multi-criteria analysis of MPA performance criteria

In order to enable effective management of marine protected areas (MPAs), desired MPA achievements need to be identified as early as possible for the development of relevant and clear management goals, objectives and conservation targets. As the definition of MPA success is a social construct, the involvement of multiple groups in this process including government agencies, stakeholders, and other interested parties is increasingly advocated. This study investigates diverse groups’ opinions on the performance of a proposed National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) on the West coast of Canada prior to its establishment. In order to analyse and quantify the importance of MPA performance criteria among multiple stakeholder groups, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is applied. Findings reveal that marine stakeholder groups have distinct preferences for future MPA performance. Most differences are obvious between user and non-user groups. The study also finds that respondents’ characteristics other than stakeholder groups affiliations influence expectations towards the proposed MPA including livelihood dependency on the marine environment, amount of time spent in the area, and engagement in fishing activities.     

Non-sectarian scenario experiments in socio-ecological knowledge building for multi-use marine environments: Insights from New Zealand's Marine Futures project

The challenges of managing marine ecosystems for multiple users, while well recognised, has not led to clear strategies, principles or practice. The paper uses novel workshop based thought-experiments to address these concerns. These took the form of trans-disciplinary Non-Sectarian Scenario Experiments (NSSE), involving participants who agreed to put aside their disciplinary interests and commercial and institutional obligations. The NSSE form of co-production of knowledge is a distinctive addition to the participatory and scenario literatures in marine resource management (MRM). Set in the context of resource use conflicts in New Zealand, the workshops assembled diverse participants in the marine economy to co-develop and co-explore the making of socio-ecological knowledge and identify capability required for a new generation of multi-use oriented resource management. The thought-experiments assumed that non-sectarian navigation of scenarios will resource a step-change in marine management by facilitating new connections, relationships, and understandings of potential marine futures. Two questions guided workshop interactions: what science needs spring from pursuing imaginable possibilities and directions in a field of scenarios, and what kinds of institutions would aid the generation of science knowledge, and it application to policy and management solutions. The effectiveness of the thought- experiments helped identify ways of dealing with core problems in multi-use marine management, such as the urgent need to cope with ecological and socio-economic surprise, and define and address cumulative impacts. Discussion focuses on how the workshops offered fresh perspectives and insights into a number of challenges. These challenges include building relations of trust and collective organisation, showing the importance of values-means-ends pathways, developing facilitative legislation to enable initiatives, and the utility of the NSSEs in informing new governance and management directions in multi-use marine environments.     

Charting the territory: Exploring stakeholder reactions to the prospect of seafloor exploration and mining in Australia

Geological surveys of Australia’s marine territory have revealed significant potential for development of a marine resource industry. As onshore mineral deposits become harder to find, less accessible to their market and more challenging to extract, seafloor exploration and mining becomes an economically viable option. However, evidence from industry and environmental literature suggests that social acceptance will be important in determining the future of this industry in Australia. This paper reports on findings from research investigating the social viability of seafloor mining in Australia. A combination of interviews and focus groups were used to explore industry and community reactions to the possible development of seafloor mining in Australia. Although stakeholders’ reactions were variable, the majority of the participants were reluctant to see development of seafloor mining in Australia, primarily because of concerns about the industry’s potential environmental impact. All stakeholders sought further information about the benefits and costs associated with the industry suggesting that they did not yet have a fixed attitude towards the industry. Stakeholders favoured a precautionary approach towards the industry, supported by rigorous scientific analysis of the potential environmental impacts, transparent and socially responsive management processes and meaningful engagement with stakeholders.     

Protected areas in marine resource management: another look at the economics and research issues

This paper reviews the research to date that relates to the economics of marine protected areas (MPAs). A special effort is made to examine the evidence on the benefits and costs of MPAs in terms of consumptive and nonconsumptive marine resource interests. General observations are made regarding the net effects of MPAs on these two stakeholder categories and the potential institutional costs of MPA implementation are highlighted. In general, the review finds that the empirical research on the economics of MPAs is limited and that there are several issues that might merit further investigation. The researchable topics are suggested as a way to better understand the socioeconomic impacts of MPAs and the potential response of stakeholders to proposed protected areas.     

Identifying marine pelagic ecosystem management objectives and indicators

International policy frameworks such as the Common Fisheries Policy and the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive define high-level strategic goals for marine ecosystems. Strategic goals are addressed via general and operational management objectives. To add credibility and legitimacy to the development of objectives, for this study stakeholders explored intermediate level ecological, economic and social management objectives for Northeast Atlantic pelagic ecosystems. Stakeholder workshops were undertaken with participants being free to identify objectives based on their own insights and needs. Overall 26 objectives were proposed, with 58% agreement in proposed objectives between two workshops. Based on published evidence for pressure-state links, examples of operational objectives and suitable indicators for each of the 26 objectives were then selected. It is argued that given the strong species-specific links of pelagic species with the environment and the large geographic scale of their life cycles, which contrast to demersal systems, pelagic indicators are needed at the level of species (or stocks) independent of legislative region. Pelagic community indicators may be set at regional scale in some cases. In the evidence-based approach used in this study, the selection of species or region specific operational objectives and indicators was based on demonstrated pressure-state links. Hence observed changes in indicators can reliably inform on appropriate management measures.     

Exploring stakeholder perceptions of marine management in Bermuda

Given competing objectives vying for space in the marine environment, the island of Bermuda may be an ideal candidate for comprehensive marine spatial planning (MSP). However, faced with other pressing issues, ocean management reform has not yet received significant traction from the government, a pattern seen in many locations. Spatial planning processes often struggle during the proposal, planning, or implementation phases due to stakeholder opposition and/or government wariness to change. Conflict among stakeholders about management reform has also proven to be a deterrent to MSP application in many locations. With these obstacles in mind, a detailed stakeholder survey was conducted in Bermuda to determine awareness, attitudes and perceptions regarding ocean health, threats to ocean environments, the effectiveness of current ocean management, and possible future changes to management. How perceptions vary for different types of stakeholders and how attitudes about specific concerns relate to attitudes about management changes were examined. Overall, the results indicate a high degree of support for spatial planning and ocean zoning and a high level of concordance even among stakeholder groups that are typically assumed to have conflicting agendas. However, attitudes were not entirely homogeneous, particularly when delving into details about specific management changes. For example, commercial fishers were generally less in favor, relative to other stakeholder groups, of increasing regulations on ocean uses with the notable exception of regulations for recreational fishing. Given the results of this survey, public support is likely to be high for government action focused on ocean management reform in Bermuda.     

An Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management framework: the efficient,regional-level planning tool for management agencies

The value of applying a regional level, Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management (EBFM) framework, which is a step-wise, hierarchical, risk-based approach, was tested on the West Coast Bioregion of Western Australia. With structured stakeholder input, over 600 ecological, social, economic and governance issues were initially identified for the region. This complexity was reduced to a level useful for management by consolidating the individual risks into 60 regional-level risks, with a multi-criteria analysis used to integrate the ecological, social and economic risks into just 24 Departmental-level priorities, which ranged from very low to urgent. Given this success, EBFM-based priorities now form the basis for the Department’s budget planning process, plus the framework is providing a critical link between fishery level issues and the broader processes undertaken by other marine based agencies. The EBFM framework is a significant step forward for the integrated management of natural resources by enabling all assets and issues relevant to stakeholders and government to be holistically considered at a regional level.     

Engaging Los Angeles County subsistence anglers in the California marine protected area planning process

Ecosystem-based management is more successful when a great diversity of stakeholders is engaged early in a decision-making process. Implementation of the California Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA) has been stakeholder-based, coordinating the participation of a wide range of people including divers, fishermen, conservationists, local officials, business owners and coastal residents. Although commercial and recreational fishermen have actively participated throughout the MLPA implementation process, and research related to California’s sport and commercial fisheries has been integrated into the process, pier and shore anglers have been relatively unengaged as stakeholders. This study was completed to generate information about pier angler understanding and sentiment towards marine protected areas (MPAs), as well as to educate anglers on the MLPA implementation process in southern California and inform them on involvement opportunities. Of the 3030 pier anglers surveyed over 12 months, 78% only fish for subsistence from piers and from shore (never from boats); 84.6% are of non-White/Euro-American ethnicity and speak English as a second language; and 82% indicated that they were supportive of establishing a strong network of MPAs in southern California, specifically fully-protective no-take marine reserves. This study is an example of an alternative and customized method of outreach designed to reach a unique and previously unengaged stakeholder group, which stands to be affected by the implementation of the MLPA in California. Engaging such non-traditional stakeholders in public policy may be critical for decision makers to gauge all views from those standing to be affected by a policy—not just the views of those that regularly attend policy meetings—and for the ultimate success of policy implementation and community support.     

Tropical shrimp trawling: Developing a management blueprint and adapting and implementing it in specific countries and fisheries

Around 1.3 million tonnes of tropical shrimp are caught annually throughout the world, primarily using bottom trawls. There are many concerns about the sustainability of these catches and the ecosystems impacts of tropical shrimp trawl fisheries. This paper describes ageneric tropical shrimp trawl blueprint for improvement of management which was developed following a global review of tropical shrimp fisheries and consideration of best practice in fisheries management. The generic blueprint is intended for adaptation through stakeholder consultation and workshops in different countries to reflect country-specific needs, and to result in country- or fisheries-specific shrimp trawl management plans. This process of adaptation has already taken place in Suriname, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Work in these four countries has affirmed the usefulness of the contents and structure of the generic blueprint, as well as the importance of country-specific adaptations. The adaptation process has also generated a number of important lessons in terms of preparation for the adaptation workshops, their completion, and post-workshop activities. Of particular note is that long-term improvements in sustainability are critically dependent on effective and concerted follow-up after the adaptation workshops to ensure the formal adoption of the management plans by government and their coherence with and incorporation into other national and project planning frameworks and developments.     

Marine ecosystem approaches to management: challenges and lessons in the United States

This study examined how the United States’ largest marine resource management agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has begun to change its management strategy away from traditional marine resource management approaches towards an Ecosystem Approach to Management (EAM). Surveys were conducted with 57 NOAA scientists and resource managers in nine NOAA programs in 8 different geographic regions across the United States in 2005. A qualitative analysis examined the attitudes and experiences of participants with respect to implementing EAM and identified four major challenges to enhancing cooperation and understanding of EAM. We conclude with recommendations for concrete initiatives that future efforts in EAM that any management agency can undertake to facilitate further ecosystem management opportunities.     

Marine protected areas: a tool for integrated coastal management in Belize

Management of the Belize Barrier Reef was originally envisioned through the creation of marine protected areas. However, the influence of land-based activities was not accounted for in Marine Protected Area (MPA) programs. Therefore focus was shifted to an integrated approach via Integrated Coastal Management (ICM). The Belize ICM process has evolved into a system of coordination through the fostering of multi-sectoral linkages for integrated management of coastal resources. Marine protected areas were included in the ICM program as tools for achieving biodiversity protection and management of sensitive habitats. The ICM process has resulted in greater coordination and consultation in decision making for coastal resource issues, the MPA program however has not evolved with the trend of greater community involvement in MPA management. The greatest challenges to MPA and ICM programs in the next 10 years are: improved linkages between the two, fostering of community participation in management, broadening of the scope of ICM to watersheds and ocean governance, and sustainable financing for both programs.     

Marine spatial planning in Scotland. Levelling the playing field?

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is the leading tool for managing human activities at sea. It is designed to assist in decision making for marine resource access and use by considering the actions of those using the resources, interactions between these groups, and their cumulative impact on the natural environment. Being informed by ecosystem based management, MSP recognises that socio-natural systems are complex and that stakeholder and public input are key components of well-informed decision making. Therefore, MSP is rooted in the principles of good governance, including those of participation and transparency. This paper considers MSP processes in Scotland's inshore waters in the context of these good governance principles. The focus is on the institutional arrangements that allow stakeholders and the public to contribute to planning Scotland's seas and coasts. Whilst acknowledging the significant challenges faced by planners, and the work conducted so far, this research suggests that improvements could be made in how – and when – engagement takes place. It appears that at an early stage of introducing MSP in Scotland powerful stakeholders shaped the images, values and principles that guide it, and that including a broader range of actors early on might positively affect the legitimacy and acceptance of MSP in its later stages. The current institutional arrangements do not appear to allow for this. Ultimately, MSP in Scotland is in danger of institutionalising – and thus legitimising – existing power relations between marine resource users, and it does little to level the playing field.