Modelling the effects of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) on the southern rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) fishery of Victoria,Australia

Since 2002, 5.3% of the Victorian coastal waters have been declared as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). These are aimed at safeguarding important marine habitats and species, significant natural features, and areas of cultural heritage and aesthetic value. However, MPAs impact the fishery for southern rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii), as total allowable catches (TACs) were previously set to allow the biomass to recover to pre‐specified target levels. The model on which assessments and risk analyses are based is extended to include the impact of MPAs. The MPAs and the area open to fishing are modelled as subpopulations with different levels of mortality and consequently different density and population size‐structure. A range for the probability of a lobster moving from a MPA to the fished area from 0 to 15% is considered, based on the results of tagging studies. The reduction of biomass available to the commercial fishery because of the introduction of MPAs is estimated to be 8% and 16% (Western and Eastern Zones) respectively. The results of a risk assessment show that if the current TACs are maintained, the time to increase the biomass available to the commercial fishery by 50% would be delayed 5–9 years in the Western Zone and 1–4 years in the Eastern Zone because of the impact of displaced effort. In contrast, spawning biomass in the Eastern Zone is currently below the agreed limit reference point, and the introduction of MPAs would enhance the rate of recovery, although only marginally initially, faster than the absence of the MPAs.     

Fishermen responses on marine protected areas in the Baltic cod fishery

Much of the research that concerns the impacts of management measures in the eastern Baltic cod fishery has focused on fish stock rather than understanding fishermen's attitudes towards regulations. Hence, there is little information available on fishermen's responses although they are the ones whom the regulations affect most profoundly. This study analyses the views of fishermen towards management measures with an emphasis on fishing closures (marine protected areas, MPAs). Swedish log-book data from 1996 to 2005 were used to describe MPA induced fishing effort displacements. Fishermen argued that MPAs have been inefficient in conservation of cod stock. The enlargement of Bornholm MPA in 2005 caused substantial effort displacement towards areas dominated by smaller sized fish. This contributed to the increased discarding of juvenile cod. Enlarged MPAs also intensified competition between different fleet segments and reallocated fishing areas. To reduce fishing mortality, fishermen suggested days-at-sea (effort) regulation and an effective landings control system for all fleets that exploit cod stocks in the Baltic Sea Main Basin. These measures would better motivate fishermen for mutual rule compliance, which is a prerequisite for a sustainable cod fishery.     

Marine protected areas in Australia: Towards a coordinated rock lobster industry position

Plans by government to accelerate the establishment of a national representative system of marine protected areas (NRSMPAs) in Australia have caused increasing disquiet within the fishing industry. Rock lobster fishers have raised concerns regarding plans to establish large “multiple‐use” MPAs that may or may not contain a substantial no‐take component in the continental shelf waters adjacent to the coast. Key industry concerns including the potential impacts on present and future harvest rates are examined. The industry response to government MPA policy in each of the major jurisdictions is outlined. An industry position developed at the National Rock Lobster Congress in Perth, Western Australia (September 2003) is put forward. The position advocates the need for an adjustment scheme to account for displaced effort, the need for government commitment to the development of management plans that include the long‐term monitoring of all MPAs, and the need for a thorough risk assessment process to be conducted before the establishment of an MPA. The issues raised in this paper should be relevant to the establishment of MPAs in an international context.     

Is catch-and-release recreational angling compatible with no-take marine protected areas?

Marine protected areas (MPAs) have become a common conservation and management tool for reducing exploitation from the commercial and recreational fisheries sectors. However, the recreational fisheries sector has the potential to be compatible with no-take MPAs when catch-and-release angling is practiced because, in theory, no fish are actually harvested. This presumes that the effects of catch-and-release angling and related activities do not cause appreciable declines in fish populations as a result of direct mortality, sub-lethal effects, or indirect effects on fish habitats, or other problems contrary to the goal of a given MPA. Here, we explore the idea that recreational catch-and-release angling may be compatible with some no-take MPAs provided there are no substantive negative ecological consequences. We argue that it is not currently possible to answer definitively the question of whether recreational catch-and-release fisheries can be compatible with no-take MPAs. Mortality rates of released fish vary extensively (between zero and near 100%) and are influenced by a number of factors including environmental conditions, fishing gear, angler behavior, and species-specific characteristics. Nevertheless, research in the field of catch-and-release is beginning to show that certain handling techniques can significantly reduce post-release mortality in fish. With appropriate regulation and angler education, catch-and-release could help enhance conservation and management goals associated with MPAs while maintaining public support and providing alternative tourism-based revenues for displaced fishers. Until sufficient data are available, research should focus on contrasting the fish community characteristics in regions with no fishing and those that permit catch-and-release fishing (i.e., opportunistic observations and controlled manipulations) as well as population-level mathematical modeling to assess the effects of angling on long-term population viability and ecosystem dynamics. Additional efforts should focus on education and outreach that provide anglers and fishing guides with the best available information to reduce catch-and-release mortality, sublethal angling-induced impairments, and broader effects on aquatic environments.     

The impacts over time of marine protected areas: A null model

A dynamic one-dimensional model of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) along a coastline has been developed to investigate their impact on fish stocks and landings over time. The model is basically a cellular automaton implemented with a spreadsheet and is used to trace stocks and landings from the initiation of the MPA for several years under a set of three different scenarios for the allocation of fishing effort. In all cases landings decline as soon as part of the coastline is protected, but in every case they recover to their original level and above. The time it takes for landings to recover ranges from four to nine years and with two small MPAs (several small) the recovery is faster than with one large one of the same spatial extent (single large). These results indicate that although fishery closures through an MPA will undoubtedly have an immediate adverse impact on the fishing industry, the chances of full recovery after several years are good, and both the fishery and the fish stocks will benefit in the long run. Further, our model provides a null model on the impacts over time of MPAs that may iteratively be compared with real cases that have biological and social variables.     

Marine reserve establishment and on-going management costs: A case study from New Zealand

While there is considerable international research focused on the conservation outcomes of marine protected areas (MPAs) and marine reserves (MRs) there is little information on the economic cost to establish and manage these protected areas. This study estimated the MR pre-establishment and establishment costs for the Taputeranga Marine Reserve (TMR) in New Zealand (NZ) and determined the annual management costs for this reserve and four further NZ MRs. Finally, the cost to local rock lobster fishers resulting from the displaced fishing effort once the TMR had been established was estimated. This research found that the TMR pre-establishment cost was approximately NZ$508,000, and the establishment process cost was approximately NZ$353,000. The annual management costs across the five reserves ranged between NZ$43,200 and NZ$112,500 between 2008/09 and 2010/11. The annual fishers displacement cost at TMR was approximately NZ$22,000 per annum. This research showed that on a unit area basis, small MRs in NZ are just as expensive to maintain as large MRs. This study also highlighted how volunteer effort helped to considerably reduce the monetary cost of the MR pre-establishment process. This research increases our understanding of establishment and management costs, and supports future planning of MRs both within NZ and internationally.     

Commercial fisheries closures in marine protected areas on Canada’s Pacific coast: The exception,not the rule

No-take marine protected areas (MPAs), where all fishing is prohibited, have been shown to provide benefits that include greater productivity of fish stocks due to increased densities, average sizes, and reproductive output. A critical component of this success is the effective management of MPAs to ensure that only those activities deemed permissible, are allowed to occur. As of 2008, 161 MPAs had been designated on the Pacific coast of Canada by federal, provincial or municipal authorities. The objective of this study was to discover how many of these MPAs are intended to provide full protection to habitats and species from commercial fishing and whether management measures were put in place to actualize this conservation intent. The comprehensive spatial dataset was built illustrating commercial fisheries closures and this was overlaid with MPA locations in a GIS. The majority of MPAs were designated as IUCN Strict Nature Reserve (Type Ia), Wilderness Area (Type Ib), and National Park (Type II) marine reserves, which are intended to be free from exploitation. It was found that 160 of the 161 MPAs are open to some commercial harvesting within their bounds. One small municipal MPA and portions of three other MPAs are not open to commercial harvesting. The incongruence between management intent and fisheries permitted suggests a management failure between designation of MPAs and implementation of fisheries management regulations.     

Optimisation of underwater visual census and controlled angling methods for monitoring subtidal temperate reef fish communities

Standardised sampling protocols for monitoring fish stocks are essential to assess changes in stock status and provide a means to evaluate the effectiveness of fisheries management measures, such as marine protected areas (MPAs). This study aimed to optimise two standard sampling methods, namely underwater visual census (UVC) and controlled angling, for assessing subtidal reef fish communities. In terms of efficiency, variability and bias, UVC transects were found to be superior to point counts. For controlled angling, an effort of two angler-hours per fishing station provided low catch variability, high catch per unit effort and a representative catch. Whereas UVC provided less variable estimates of relative density, controlled angling provided greater sampling efficiency. It is thus recommended that the two methods be used in conjunction. The optimal sampling protocols identified are suitable for rapid assessments or long-term monitoring of subtidal, temperate reef fish communities.     

Evaluating marine protected areas for managing marine resource conflict in Hawaii

Conflict surrounding commercial fisheries is a common phenomenon when diverse stakeholders are involved. Harvesting reef fish for the global ornamental fish trade has provoked conflict since the late 1970s in the State of Hawaii. Two decades later the state of Hawaii established a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) on the west coast of the island of Hawaii (“West Hawaii”) to protect and enhance the fish resources and alleviate conflict between stakeholders, principally between commercial dive tour operators and aquarium fishers. The perceptions held by these stakeholders on West Hawaii and Maui were evaluated to understand how MPAs influenced conflict dimensions, as the former location had a well-established MPA network designed to alleviate conflict, while the latter did not. This was accomplished by analyzing the following questions: (1) perceptions about the effectiveness of MPAs to alleviate conflict and enhance reef fish; (2) perceived group encounters and threats to coral reefs; (3) willingness to encourage fishing; and (4) value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade. The results indicate the MPAs in West Hawaii were moderately effective for alleviating conflict, encounters between stakeholders occurred on both islands, dive operators strongly opposed commercial fishing and perceived aquarium fishing as a serious threat to the coral reef ecosystem, and polarized value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade confirms pervasive social values conflict. The conflict between these groups was also asymmetrical. MPAs are inadequate for resolving long term conflict between groups who hold highly dissimilar value orientations toward the use of marine resources. Future marine spatial planning and MPA setting processes should include stakeholder value and conflict assessments to avoid and manage tensions between competing user groups.     

Each fisherman is different: Taking the environmental perception of small-scale fishermen into account to manage marine protected areas

One of the reasons for the failure of some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is the lack of respect for their boundaries and regulations, which intensifies the need to assess the attitudes of stakeholders affected by MPAs. To this end, it is necessary to know the perception and behavior of resource users in these areas in relation to the management process. This study addressed the perception of different groups of fishermen in three MPAs that allow sustainable use of resources on the Brazilian northeastern coast. The perception analysis was based on four aspects: biodiversity conservation, flexibility and adaptability of fishermen, participation in management and opinions about the MPA. The interviewed fishermen (n=100) were classified into natives or immigrants,≥than 40 years old or <40, predominant use of selective or nonselective fishing gear and part or full time fishermen. The results showed that younger fishermen and the ones who use selective fishing gear presented a more conservation prone perception; nonselective fishermen and part-time fishermen were more flexible and adaptable to changes; and younger fishermen tended to agree more with the establishment of the MPAs. Taking these differences in perceptions among fishermen into account could serve as a basis for improvements in the management and conservation of fishing resources, besides helping predict possible future behavior due to changes in management policies.     

Suggestions for fixing top-down coastal fisheries management through participatory approaches

Marine protected areas created in a top-down way can be costly and ineffective due to low compliance of resource users. Conversely, employing users’ local knowledge and involving them in decision-making processes could decrease costs and conflicts, in addition to increasing the chances of management success. Here the potential to change conflicting MPAs into conservation areas that take into account fishers’ use and knowledge is assessed based on a case study on the Brazilian coast (Paraty town). Fishers (n=206) from 11 villages were interviewed regarding their main fishing targets and gear, and then only the experienced ones (n=41) were interviewed from three main fishing villages about the most important commercial species. Fish landings were sampled for one year in these three villages (n=823), where participatory mapping and group interviews with fishers were also conducted to determine their opinions regarding management and how they thought it should be undertaken. Management measures should not be equivalent across the whole region, as there were clear differences in the target species and gear used. Fishers identified 55 important fishing spots, eight of which were important for more than five villages, while the experts identified 10 important fishing areas for the target species, which was supported by the sampling of fish landings. The fishers were not opposed to management and no-take reserves but would make some changes in the current design of these measures if it were up to them. Based on these data, a few changes were indicated in the design of these areas that would likely reduce the conflict between fishers and enforcement agencies. This kind of approach could be used as a framework for adapting conflictive MPAs or to support the establishment of new ones where fisheries are relevant.     

Fact or fiction? Assessing governance and co-management of Marine Reserves of Fishing Interest in Cedeira and Lira (NW Spain)

A large number of the marine protected areas (MPAs) designated in Spain have been proposed by public authorities or conservation NGOs in conjunction with their own administrations and other social and economic stakeholders. The only examples to date of MPAs proposed by fishing interests – the fishermen and their organizations – are located at Cedeira and Lira, two small communities in North West Spain. These fishing interests have been involved in these two proposals from the start, including design and development, as well as internal awareness-raising. However, 5 years from the outset, both marine reserves have failed to meet the conditions and essential requirements of a successful fisheries management system. This paper evaluates how the artisanal fishing sector has been identified with the idea of sustainability; and how the role and power relations of the Galician regional administration acquired both the key institutions of co-management and their associated functions which have conditioned the consolidation process of these marine reserves.     

Can management effort be predicted for marine protected areas? New considerations for network design

This study examined the level of management complexity (simultaneously occurring licensed human activities) within the currently designated Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Scottish waters and through modelling and statistical analysis determined which variables play an important role in defining the level of management effort required for each MPA. This study utilised surveyed distribution data for Priority Marine Features and modelled distribution data showing potential “Most Suitable” Priority Marine Feature habitat through the species distribution model, Maxent. Prediction indicators were developed through Spearman׳s Rank coefficients and a linear regression model. Results showed that, (1) there was a significant negative correlation between the management complexity score within 5 km of a MPA and the number of casework events (defined as any work or statutory consultation associated with an MPA, such as planning applications, discharges or new fisheries); and (2) a significant positive correlation between the number of casework events and location, number of features, and the type of features and most suitable scores. Calculations showed that Lochs Duich, Long and Alsh, Loch Sunart, Loch Sween and Loch Creran may potentially require most effort to manage once they are designated as MPAs. This study showed that it is possible to evaluate options within an MPA network to achieve cost effective options for the biodiversity and socio-economic objectives of MPA networks and that some MPAs are likely to be more efficient than others in terms of management time.     

Equity, justice and power issues raised by no-take marine protected area proposals

In the face of growing calls for no-take marine protected areas (NTMPAs) and the development of a UK legal framework for them, fishing industry and related perspectives on the equity, justice and power issues raised by such designations are explored. Whilst these reveal growing concerns about the political and geographical marginalisation of the fishing industry, they also reveal a significant potential for the constructive participation of industry representatives in discussions and decisions concerning NTMPAs. These findings support the argument that this potential should be realised, as the environmental coherence of our seas need not be achieved through the social and economic isolation of our fishing industry.     

Fishers' perceptions as indicators of the performance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

How users perceive the performance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is fundamental for the social acceptance of these zones. Moreover, their perceptions may be relevant for monitoring the effects of MPAs on extractive activities. This study analyzes artisanal fishers' perceptions of the performance of a north-western Mediterranean coastal MPA, which encompasses two no-take zones (NTZs). Three viewpoints have been considered: the effect on the personal activity of fishers, the effect on the local fishery and the effect on the ecosystem. In order to test the hypothesis that biomass export (spillover) - which had previously been evidenced from the two NTZs - may influence fishers' perceptions of NTZ effects, fishers' perceptions were compared with both declared and observed fishing activity over an one-year period.The results show that negative perceptions of NTZs are either nil or are negligible. Most fishers are aware of the beneficial effects of NTZs on ecosystems and fisheries. However, they remain to be convinced of the beneficial effects of the NTZs on their own activity. For instance, the proximity of a NTZ appears never to be involved in the choice of a fishing spot. This partial lack of correspondence between scientific expectation and fishers' perceptions is discussed in the light of fishing habits in the zone adjacent to NTZs, and takes into account fishing grounds, targeted species and seniority (defined as the number of years the fisher has been fishing within the MPA). All three factors appear to influence fishers' perceptions. For example, having a positive perception about a NTZ and spending more time fishing in the adjacent zone are habits that can be associated with fishers with less seniority. Fishers' perceptions obviously indicate the social acceptance of the MPA and are an essential monitoring tool for MPA managers. However, perceptions cannot be seen as a substitute for scientific monitoring, as both approaches are clearly complementary.     

Protected areas in marine resource management: another look at the economics and research issues

This paper reviews the research to date that relates to the economics of marine protected areas (MPAs). A special effort is made to examine the evidence on the benefits and costs of MPAs in terms of consumptive and nonconsumptive marine resource interests. General observations are made regarding the net effects of MPAs on these two stakeholder categories and the potential institutional costs of MPA implementation are highlighted. In general, the review finds that the empirical research on the economics of MPAs is limited and that there are several issues that might merit further investigation. The researchable topics are suggested as a way to better understand the socioeconomic impacts of MPAs and the potential response of stakeholders to proposed protected areas.     

Questionable interpretation of the Precautionary Principle in Australia's implementation of ‘no-take’ marine protected areas

The introduction of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Australia has resulted in an increase in the number and total area of ‘no-take’ zones. The resulting closures impact all forms of commercial and recreational fishing in and around them despite international recognition indicating that Australian fisheries were already well managed according to ecological sustainable development guidelines. Furthermore, it is recognised within Australia that most MPAs are not designed to provide protection from the full suite of known threats that can affect biodiversity and long-term ecosystem viability. By directing MPA management disproportionately towards comprehensive no-take zones that affect fishing practices that are already required by state and federal legislation to adhere to sustainability requirements, the suite of threats affecting both protected and unprotected areas can be left inadequately and/or inappropriately managed. It is shown in this paper that the modified definition of the Precautionary Principle, which was developed specifically for the MPA process in Australia, is not in keeping with accepted international definitions and guidelines for the use of precaution. It is argued that the development of a definition of precaution to justify a predetermined output (MPAs) devalues the sound use of scientific principles and diminishes the conservation outcome. Furthermore, by distracting efforts from determining and managing the full suite of recognised threats, the value of what protection is provided in Australia's marine protected areas is eroded further.     

Effective ecosystem-based management must encourage regulatory compliance: A Gulf of California case study

The Northern Gulf of California is an area important for small-scale fisheries in terms of economic activity and food security, but widespread non-compliance with fisheries regulations impedes effective management of resources and conservation efforts. Where a previous study evaluated quantitatively a theoretical situation in which all regulations are perfectly followed, this article compares a suite of recently proposed ecosystem-based management (EBM) policies against the expected benefits of full enforcement of current regulations. Policies evaluated include no-take marine protected areas (MPAs), breeding period closures, changes in hook size and fishing effort, and gear-specific spatial closures. No-take MPAs yield ecological benefits over a wide range of MPA sizes and characteristics, but do not increase overall catch. Seasonal closures are effective at reducing overfishing for the depleted leopard grouper (Mycteroperca rosacea); changing the hook size of artisanal longlines does not increase catch of either the target species or the assemblage, and gear-specific fishery closures for crab traps near Puerto Peñasco are effective at reducing overfishing of blue crab (Callinectes bellicosus and C. arcuatus). In general, full enforcement of existing regulations outperforms these EBM policies in terms of conservation benefits, but it may be less palatable to stakeholders as it requires major reductions in catch.