Estimating the effects of technological efficiency on the European fishing fleet

By comparing the real reductions in fishing capacity of the European Union (EU) and the effects of technological efficiency, this paper presents the first comprehensive analysis since the creation of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). Using a standard methodology and a conservative value of ±4.4% for annual technological progress, the results obtained for tonnage indicated that the EU-13 fleet's fishing capacity was reduced by >4% for only three years (1991, 2004, and 2006) in the 1987–2006 period.     

Nuts and bolts in fisheries management—a technological approach to sustainable fisheries?

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, overcapacity in the fishing fleet poses a fundamental challenge in fisheries. Overcapacity leads to an increased pressure on fish stocks and a decrease in economic profit. The fishing fleet is marginalised economically, and overcapacity creates allocation conflicts between different gear and vessel groups. In addition, the expenses to control and management increase. Although Norwegian authorities have introduced several restrictions, for example total allowable catch, licenses, vessel quotas, and other regulatory measures, this article shows that the problems connected to overcapacity persist. Analyses of the technical capacity development show that there is an overall capacity expansion although the number of vessels is reduced. This development is an indicator of the dynamics of technological development over time, and the article discusses whether the concept of technology is sufficiently integrated into fisheries management. The important question now is whether analyses of the technical capacity development can serve as a positive supplement to the traditional fisheries management, which largely is based on input from the scientific disciplines biology and economics.     

Capacity and economic efficiency in small-scale fisheries: Evidence from the Mediterranean Sea

To design an effective capacity management plan for small-scale fisheries one must understand what one is measuring and define its capacity. As recognized by some authors, overcapacity is a problem that generally affects small-scale fisheries just as much as it does other types of fishing. This study aims to estimate fishing capacity, technical efficiency, scale efficiency and capacity utilization in a particular small-scale fishery in the Mediterranean, i.e., the Northwest Sardinian fleet in Italy. A non-parametric approach using a data envelopment analysis (DEA) model was applied to a sample of trawls in order to estimate their economic capacity, and related measurements were taken. The capacity and efficiency with reference to two different alternative scenarios were also calculated.     

Norway's experience with ITQs

This paper discusses the development of ITQs in Norway. Even if some would deny that anything such exists, fisheries management in Norway has some unmistakable characteristics of an ITQ system. Both boatowners and policy makers have discovered the attractions of transferable quotas, the former as a means to increase their private profits, the latter as a vehicle to reduce fleet overcapacity. The slow evolution of transferability is mainly the result of ideological opposition and opposition to structural changes, the latter involving falling number of fishermen, changes in location of the fishing industry, and changed composition of the fishing fleet. The development of this system in the purse seine fleet and the fleet fishing for cod and similar species is traced. Then the concept of resource rent is discussed, as well as how it has become capitalized in quota values, which show up as a rise in value of long term assets of the fishing industry.     

Fishing capacity management in Taiwan: Experiences and prospects

Taiwan has developed its fisheries since the 1950s and become one of the major fishing nations in the high seas. Facing overcapacity and strong criticism by related Regional Fisheries Management Organizations, Taiwan did not only formulate lots of regulations to limit fishing capacity, but also spent around US$350 million from 1991 to 2008 to scrap 30% capacity of large scale longline fishing vessels and 18% of coastal fishing vessels. This study provides the insight that efficient use of budget and communication with fisherman, and coping with comprehensive stock assessment, would be the key issues in establishing a successful fishing capacity management.     

Flexible management of fishing rights and a sustainable fisheries industry in Europe

Although overexploitation of commercial fish stocks in European waters has been in the public debate now for more than 20 years, the European Union has so far failed to implement sustainable fisheries management. Millions in subsidies paid to the fishing industry have led to significant excess capacity in the fishing fleet. Various feeble attempts to stop overexploitation of marine resources have failed. The cause is that fishing policy is highly dominated by short-term socioeconomic interests. There is an urgent need for a new fisheries management system in Europe that supports reductions in the fishing fleet, increases responsibility among fishers and guarantees long-term conservation of natural marine resources.Transferable rights to fish have proved a reliable and effective means of creating incentives to conserve marine resources. By strengthening individual fishing rights under flexible quota management systems, the EU Member States could, within the Common Fisheries Policy, make a significant contribution to conserving fish stocks, to reducing excess capacity and to raising the profitability of the fisheries industry. A closer look at existing reservations against a flexible management system shows most of the objections to be overstated or capable of resolution.     

Taiwan's response to international fisheries management after 2005 as influenced by ICCAT and fishers' perception

It is widely recognized that fishing states are obliged to exercise flag state responsibility over their vessels. In an attempt to become a responsible fishing actor, Taiwan has endeavored to manage its distant water fishing fleet in accordance with international fisheries management. However, the long-standing problems of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, fish laundering, and fishing overcapacity, which remained unsolved during the 1990s and early 2000s, brought its management capability into doubt. Failure to address these problems undermined the credibility of all management measures and ultimately resulted in a recommendation adopted by International Commission for the Conservation of the Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) in 2005. This recommendation significantly affected Taiwan's distant water fishing policy. This paper examines how Taiwan assimilated this outside force into its fishing policy as a new response to international fisheries management and how fishers perceived this response. It shows that Taiwan's efforts in controlling distant water fisheries marked a big change, specifically manifest in three noticeable actions - reducing excessive bigeye-targeted efforts, deterring IUU fishing, and strengthening fisheries management. The study advises that management of small tuna vessels be effectively exercised and recommends future actions on providing subsidies for fishers to partially offset costs incurred by rule compliance, streamlining their administrative work, enhancing communication with them, putting more enforcement and meaningful penalties in place. Finally, the study indicates the existence of an interaction in the international fisheries management scheme, potentially favoring Taiwan to bargain for fishing rights and a favorable status in the participation of regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) in the future if it continues to exercise effective control of distant water fisheries.     

Are the smallest fishing vessels the most sustainable?—trade-off analysis of sustainability attributes

This article discusses application of systems engineering principles and trade-off analysis of sustainability in the fishing fleet. Sustainability in the fishing fleet may be characterized by seven attributes measured by performance indicators. Evaluations show that the energy consumption is higher for the Norwegian ocean going fleet than the coastal fleet, whereas the opposite is the case for the number of fatalities. An important part of the systems engineering process is analysis and optimization of system alternatives. Thus, the main objective of the article is to investigate ranking of the sustainability attributes, which implies use of multi-attribute decision-making methods. The analytic hierarchy process was used to interview stakeholders to the fishing fleet about their preferences. The article concludes that if “accident risk” is weighted as the most important attribute, the smallest fishing vessels are not as sustainable as often claimed.     

Interdecadal variability of anchoveta abundance and overcapacity of the fishery in Peru

Paleontological and historical stock abundance estimates indicate that pelagic fish populations inhabiting upwelling ecosystems undergo large interdecadal variations in abundance with amplitudes equal to, if not larger than, the interannual variability. The interdecadal variability is characterized by periods of high and low abundance, termed “pseudo-cycles”, because of their irregular periodicity. Fisheries targeting small pelagic fish suffer from overall overcapitalization, like many other fisheries, but also from an additional overcapitalization problem: a phase displacement between rapid fish population decreases and a slower disinvestment which follows. This lag produces economic hardship.Here we document the fish:fishery relationship for the Peruvian anchoveta. Anchoveta pseudo-cycles of 20 to >100 years are observed, with the present stock abundance most likely located near upper part of the cycle. Fleet overcapacity expressed as the proportion of unused present capacity is estimated at 72% and processing overcapacity at 89%. A simple bio-economic model demonstrates the risks associated with the pseudo-periodicity in fish stock abundance in conjunction with fishery investment, open access, and overcapacity: a timing bomb for the fishing sector. The lag between disinvestment and decrease in fish abundance is quantified. A reduction of the fishing and processing capacity and measures to decrease the investment lag are recommended to limit the social, economical and political tensions that will result from the expected decrease in stock abundance. Finally, some management options to reduce these risks are discussed.     

Who gets what? Developing a more equitable framework for EU fishing agreements

The reform of the European Union’s Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is focusing attention on EU distant water fishing activities, including the agreements signed with developing coastal states. Here, the EU’s fishing agreement with Madagascar, among the poorest countries to hold such an agreement, is examined. Incomes received by Madagascar since the first agreement with the EU in 1986 are documented, in both nominal and real terms, and discussed in the context of other conditions tied to the agreement, in particular support provided by the EU to improve Madagascar’s fisheries management capacity. Results indicate that since 1986, EU quotas increased by 30% while the fees paid by the EU decreased by 20%. Yet, Madagascar’s treasury income from these agreements decreased by 90%. This shows that the EU agreements with Madagascar are in direct contradiction to the goals set forth by the CFP, which states that benefits of agreements should be directed towards developing countries, and not towards private EU entities. This raises profound ethical questions that the CFP reform must address. A new framework is proposed, prioritizing fisheries sustainability and equitable benefit sharing, in which reasonable quotas are set, fees are indexed to the landed value of catches, and all costs of agreements are borne directly by the benefiting industries. EU development assistance should be decoupled from these agreements, and should focus on enhancing the host countries’ monitoring and enforcement capacities. This new framework would increase the benefits to Madagascar while reducing costs to EU taxpayers.     

System evaluation of sustainability in the Norwegian cod-fisheries

Overcapacity in the fishing fleets is considered as the most serious threat to sustainable fisheries. More effective fishing vessels and catching gear contribute to increased catch capacity. Increased catch capacity causes environmental problems such as overexploitation and calls for larger quotas. The problem of overcapacity indicates the need for a stronger integration of technological aspects into fisheries management. This article assesses the differences in sustainability between the Norwegian ocean and coastal fishing fleets in the cod fisheries, by using systems engineering methods. Attributes of sustainability in the Norwegian cod fishing fleets are investigated, as well as acceptance criteria and performance indicators. The results show that there are huge differences in the performance between the vessel groups, and that the results of an evaluation of sustainability in the fishing fleets are dependent on which attributes are explored. Thus, the discussion may contribute to a better decision basis and improved sustainability in fisheries management.     

Quantitative evaluation of the performance of a permit auction system in reducing bycatch of sea turtles in the Hawaii Swordfish longline fishery

Many authors have suggested the use of a cap and trade auction system to help reduce bycatch—the incidental take of species by fishing gear targeting other species—of sea turtles in the Hawaii-based swordfish longline fishery. However, we know of no quantitative evaluations of the method. We present a simple mathematical model to serve as a framework to evaluate bycatch auction systems quantitatively. We conclude that cap and trade auction systems have the potential to reduce sea turtle bycatch by creating a financial incentive, while keeping permit costs down to 2–3% of total revenues. While stringent regulations aimed at conserving endangered sea turtles would still be essential, implementation of an auction for issuing transferable bycatch permits would likely enhance the economic efficiency of the fleet. Sea turtle mortality could be reduced further if a shrinking cap on total turtle mortality was introduced, taking advantage of the incentives for reducing turtle mortality that are introduced by the cap and trade auction system.     

拉尼娜期间中西太平洋鲣栖息地分布特征

鲣是大洋中重要经济种类,主要分布于太平洋中西部海域,其渔场和资源丰度易受海洋环境因子影响。根据1995-2014年中西太平洋金枪鱼围网船队在主要作业海域（15°S~10°N,120°E~155°W）的生产数据,结合弱、中、强拉尼娜条件下的海表温度（SST）和海面高度（SSH）数据,运用算术平均法（AM）建立基于SST和SSH的栖息地指数综合模型。结果表明,在栖息地综合指数（HIS）大于0.6的海域,各拉尼娜时期作业比重均在60%以上。利用弱拉尼娜（2005年12月-2006年3月）、中拉尼娜（2011年10月-2012年3月）和强拉尼娜（2010年6月-2011年4月）数据进行模型验证,分析认为作业渔场主要分布在HSI大于0.6的海域,作业次数所占比重分别为53.9%、66.5%、63.6%。在中西太平洋区域,随着拉尼娜强度的增加,资源丰度上升,其渔场分布向东北和东南方向扩散。研究表明,基于SST和SSH各强度拉尼娜时期的栖息地模型均可较好预测中西太平洋鲣渔场,并为以后拉尼娜期间中心渔场的分析提供参考。     

Performance of a northwestern Mediterranean bottom trawl fleet: How the integration of landings and VMS data can contribute to the implementation of ecosystem-based fisheries management

The European Union has established a framework to achieve or maintain good environmental status in the marine environment by 2020. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive requires the application of the ecosystem approach to the management of human activities, covering all sectors having an impact on the marine environment. However, fisheries in the Mediterranean are far from a systematic implementation of an ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM). Aiming to address this issue, this study explores the potential of the relationship between daily yield by vessel (landings and income by species) and vessel position (known via vessel monitoring system) as a tool for fleet management. This approach is possible due to the current dynamics of Mediterranean fleets, with vessels returning daily to the harbour where landings are registered as weight and income by vessel. Moreover, vessels of >15 m total length have been compulsory monitored by VMS since 2005. A bottom trawl fleet that operates in the northwestern Mediterranean was chosen to develop this approach. Different groups of trawlers were identified, which could be linked to the strategies displayed by the fishermen that were mainly driven by the target species dynamics. Accurate knowledge of the fishing targets driving the fleet dynamics and of the fishing strategies at the vessel level (i.e. fishing ground habitat where the fishing pressure is exerted and corresponding landings) are shown to be a feasible tool for fleet management.     

Acceptable sustainability in the fishing fleet

This article discusses the performance of the Norwegian fishing fleet within an acceptable level of sustainability. Previously, the cod-fishing fleet has been evaluated at the attributes—accident risk, employment, profitability, quality of the fish meat, catch capacity, greenhouse gas emissions/acidification, and bycatch/selection. The assessments focused on the first four steps of the systems engineering process, i.e., from needs identification to trade-offs of system alternatives. The objective of this paper is to focus on the last steps of the process; design, solve, verify, and test, to improve the decision-basis for fisheries management in order to increase sustainability in the fishing fleet. More specifically, this means to analyze the decision-making situation and develop acceptance criteria of a sustainable Norwegian cod-fishing fleet to enable fisheries management to monitor the sustainability performance of the fleet on a regular basis.     

Fisheries and failing states: The case of Sierra Leone

Marine fisheries play an important role in the economy of Sierra Leone, supporting livelihoods and contributing significantly to food security. This paper looks in detail at how the performance of fisheries was impacted by the ten year civil war, an event which contributed to the country's reputation for being a “failed state”. The paper focuses mainly on the artisanal fisheries sector, which employs the majority of the country's coastal population, and demonstrates how the conflict caused major social dislocation to fishing communities as well as reducing the productive capacity of the fleet. The paper concludes with a discussion of the policy challenges now facing Sierra Leone, particularly the prevention of resource looting through illegal fishing of the offshore stocks and the development of strategies to enable the potential wealth of these fisheries to be captured.     

The artisanal fishery of Cynoscion guatucupa in Argentina: Exploring the possible causes of the collapse in Bahía Blanca estuary

Cynoscion guatucupa Cuvier 1829 is a migratory pelagic fish species, which has a wide geographical distribution. It is the most important fishing resource for local communities in Bahía Blanca estuary and has been captured by artisanal fishermen since the 1900s. The industrial fleet has been fishing this species in the coastal area of Buenos Aires province since the 1950s, and, since 1970, landings have increased sharply. Between 2000 and 2004, the artisanal fishery in the estuarine waters of Bahía Blanca collapsed. Variations in total landings of the artisanal fleet might have arisen from the environmental variables within the estuary, fishing activity in the surrounding sea region, local pressure within the estuary and/or several other variables. Our results suggest that neither oceanographic parameters nor local pressure seem to have influenced the artisanal fishery of C. guatucupa in the estuarine region. Instead, this fishery seems to have been partially influenced by the increasing fishing pressure exerted by the industrial fishing fleet operating in open waters around the estuary. This study emphasizes the need to take into account fisheries data from both the estuarine environment and the surrounding sea region, particularly when designing management plans for the sustainable use of migrating fish resources.     

Managing overcapacity in small-scale fisheries in Southeast Asia

It is now almost universally accepted that most of the nearshore fisheries in Southeast Asia are overfished. It is also accepted that overcapacity is one of the leading causes of this overfishing. The problem of addressing overcapacity in small-scale fisheries in Southeast Asia is much more complex than that of reducing overcapacity in industrial fleets. In order to manage capacity, managers need to measure and understand how much capacity currently exists in the fishery and what is the desirable level of capacity that best meets the set of management objectives. The only feasible solution to overcapacity may be based on a coordinated and integrated approach involving a mixed strategy of resource management, resource restoration and conservation, livelihoods and economic and community development, and restructured governance arrangements. The reduction of overcapacity implies an increased focus on people-related solutions and on communities.     

History,effort distribution and landings in an artisanal bottom longline fishery: An empirical study from the North Atlantic Ocean

Commercial fishing data were used to reconstruct historical spatio-temporal patterns of fishing effort and landings in the bottom longline fishery of the Azores. Key events during an important 15-year period were charted, through fisher interviews together with GIS analysis. While effort distribution varied over time, the prevailing pattern was a shift in focus from eastern to western areas and from shelf/slope to offshore banks and seamounts in response to policy measures (e.g. banning bottom longline inside 3 NM, public aids for modernization of the fleet) and reduced fishing yields. Areas 12–50 NM from shore represented the most vital fishing grounds in terms of fishing effort and production. Declining landings of the major demersal species, in recent years, indicate that present catch levels are not sustainable and further measures need to be taken in order to sustain fisheries resources. Knowledge of fleet behavior and the distribution of fishing effort, particularly in patchy environments, provide valuable insights into the impacts of past management decisions and help predict the outcome of new policies both in this region and elsewhere.     

Estimating global discards and their potential reduction for the Galician fishing fleet (NW Spain)

This study presents the first comprehensive estimation of discard amounts in the Galician fishing fleet, in order to provide an integral view of this increasing environmental problem at a regional scale. Subsequently, a series of improvement actions relating to discard minimization are suggested with the goal of enhancing the performance of the Galician fishing fleet through discard minimization. Discard estimates were constructed individually for the different Galician fisheries by aggregating primary data obtained from a total of 89 fishing vessels and secondary data for those fleets that were not directly sampled. Results showed that roughly 60,250 t of marine organisms were discarded by the Galician fleet in 2008, representing 16.9% of the total capture. Moreover, an important percentage of these discards were linked mainly to trawling vessels and to a lesser extent, to certain long lining fisheries. Therefore, improved management measures in target stocks should take into account the fact that alternative fishing gears other than trawl nets may reduce the amount of discards for certain species. This estimation may improve the assessment of stocks and help to quantify the damage that discards may have on wild ecosystems.