Co-management of sea turtle fisheries: Biogeography versus geopolitics

Co-management between local communities and government agencies is promoted as a strategy to improve fisheries management. This paper considers the potential for co-management of sea turtle fisheries within four UK Overseas Territories (OTs) in the Caribbean, and for co-ordinated management among those territories. We focus on fisher incentives for engaging in co-management and on the potential to scale up co-management to a regional level. This paper presents data from Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat, and Turks and Caicos Islands, where 110 turtle fishers participated in a socio-economic survey undertaken as part of the ‘Turtles in the UK Overseas Territories in the Caribbean’ project. Based on three established criteria for co-management (perceived crisis in stock, willingness to participate and community cohesion), results suggest that fisher support for co-management exists within each OT, but the extent of support for and views of specific management interventions varies among OTs. The implications of results for co-management in each territory, and for establishing co-ordinated management regimes in the region, are discussed in the context of current debates about the nature of resources and scalar (mis)matches between resource and management regimes.     

Can co-management emerge spontaneously? Collaborative management in Sri Lankan shrimp aquaculture

Shrimp aquaculture in northwestern Sri Lanka shows co-management like features. To understand the reasons behind co-management and to identify the mechanisms by which co-management is carried out, the paper examines shrimp aquaculture operations in three coastal communities using a case study approach. Water from an interconnected lagoon system is the key input for shrimp ponds, but it is also the potential source of shrimp disease outbreaks that threaten all shrimp farms. Farmers try to prevent the spread of disease by co-operating to adjust the timing of water intake and wastewater release. This is done through a zonal crop calendar system which is developed and implemented by a vertically integrated institutional structure with three levels: sub-zonal/community, zonal, and national. Partnerships, overall sharing of power and authority, and learning-by-doing are key features of this collaborative management system. The case shows that adaptive co-management can develop through collaborative problem-solving over time, even in the absence of legal arrangements.     

Can formalisation help? The introduction of fisheries co-management in the inshore fisheries of Dingle,Co. Kerry,Ireland

Fisheries co-management is claimed to increase the legitimacy of regulations by allocating management authority to selected users. In this article, experiences from a case study in the inshore fisheries of Ireland involving the establishment of a fisheries co-management system are used to discuss the specific problem of finding an unit to whom regulatory authority may be delegated. Here, the fishers who will benefit from the co-management scheme will also carry the costs, and it is argued that establishment of formal economic liability between those granted management privileges and those excluded can optimise the legitimacy of management authority in fisheries co-management systems.     

Aquaculture stakeholders role in fisheries co-management

Industrial aquaculture has become one of the main protagonists both on the coasts and in international policy aimed at regulating matters concerning the sea. This new role is reflected in the recently adopted Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union, where the need to promote the sector and the involvement with other local actors, specifically artisanal fishers, is highlighted. However, the official promotion of this activity could be overvaluing its benefits while, at the same time, undervaluing the new barriers that it is introducing in fisheries co-management. Centered in Valencian Community (Spain) and through a qualitative methodology, this paper examines the views and positions of stakeholders directly involved in aquaculture activity (biologists, aquaculture businessmen and policy managers) on the possibilities of joint participation. It is concluded, that eroding the detected mistrust among stakeholders through "hybrid forms of participation" would be a necessary prerequisite to setting up a common framework for involvement leading to an effective co-management.     

Distribution of economic returns in small-scale fisheries for international markets: A value-chain analysis

Small-scale fishers are often believed to receive marginal earnings for seafood relative to other value- chain actors but proportionate incomes across different traded species are rarely compared. This study compares value chains for 15 species of sea cucumbers between Fiji and Kiribati using data collected on sale prices of dried products (bêche-de-mer) from fishers to middlemen and exporters, export prices and market retail prices in China. Pacific islanders comprised almost all fishers, but represented only some middlemen and few exporters. Proportional increases in prices along the value chains differed greatly among sea cucumber species and between countries. Fishers’ earnings varied greatly among species. The relative share of the end market value they received was negatively related to product end-market value; on average 50% of the end retail value for the lowest-value species but <10% for the highest-value species. Most fishers lacked information about market prices. The gross markup of exporters differed greatly between the two countries. Downstream actors reaped increasingly higher proportions of the product value for higher value species. Variation in sale prices between countries and fishers for the same product indicates a potential for higher earnings to fishers. Improved transparency of prices to fishers could empower them to negotiate higher prices, especially for more valuable species. Upgrading of value-chain governance, e.g. through fisher cooperatives or auction systems, could improve efficiency and fisher incomes, potentially reducing the need for high fishing rates. Such interventions will benefit from understanding the value-chain patterns among different species harvested in multispecies fisheries.     

Participatory assessment of management measures for octopus vulgaris pot and trap fishery from southern Portugal

Co-management has shown promising results for the sustainable use of fishery resources. The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) pot and trap fishery in the Algarve (Portugal) holds the potential for implementation of a co-management system. To explore this potential, seven participatory workshops took place between 2014–2015, bringing together 60 participants from 10 fishing associations and 16 fisheries management and research institutions. The exercise resulted in promising outcomes with regards to the possible implementation of a co-management system for the fishery. In the present work an overview of the outcomes of the participatory workshops is given and compared with initiatives worldwide. Among the management actions identified, some have direct impacts on the octopus’ life cycle, while all target the same overall objective: to regulate fishing effort. In the informal setting of the workshops, a formal request was developed: the establishment of an annual closed season in the Algarve. This request was taken into consideration by the responsible management institution.     

Expanding fisheries co-management to ecosystem-based management: A case in the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage area,Japan

Fisheries co-management in the Shiretoko World Natural Heritage area was expanded to ecosystem-based management, in which the fisheries sector plays an essential role in management. A marine management plan was drawn up to define the management objectives, strategies to maintain major species, and methods for ecosystem monitoring. A network of coordinating organizations from a wide range of sectors was established to integrate policy measures. Experience from this case could inform ecosystem-based management in other countries where large numbers of small-scale fishers take a wide range of species under a fisheries co-management regime.     

Social and economic consequences of 40 years of Dutch quota management

The Netherlands was one of the first nations to introduce ITQs in their fisheries to manage national yearly Total Allowable Catches (TACs). These ITQs have gradually developed from an individual quota system in 1976 to an ITQ system in the 1980s. In 1993 the system was reformed into a co-management system. In this paper it is argued that many of the usual negative socio-economic consequences of ITQs mentioned in the literature have been largely absent, due to the embeddedness of ITQs in co-management arrangements. However, cracks have appeared lately in this combined management system, allowing an identification of its vulnerabilities. These findings show that the social and economic structure of Dutch fisheries is changing from a rather cooperative to a more competitive and exclusive system, more like conventional ITQs.     

Efforts to reduce sea turtle bycatch in the shrimp fishery in Northeastern Brazil through a co-management process

The neritic waters of the state of Sergipe in Northeastern Brazil is adjacent to the main nesting area of the olive ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) in the Western Atlantic Ocean and an important area for shrimp trawl fishery. To address the problem of incidental mortality of sea turtles captured during trawling and reduce the risk of overexploitation of shrimp stocks, Projeto TAMAR/ICMBio, a Brazilian sea turtle conservation program, has adopted two main strategies: (1) the implementation of a marine monitoring program and (2) active participation in local forums. This paper describes the conflicts among stakeholders, the arrangements and established mechanisms of negotiation aimed to protect sea turtles and shrimp grounds, and strategies to reduce conflicts between user groups. The analysis of this co-management process highlights the importance of stakeholder participation in resource management decision-making through a cooperative process, the role assumed by non-governmental organizations as mediators, and the factors that influence this system. The key factors and actions learnt from the current study include clear identification of the conflicts, identification of stakeholders – both local and external, and local leaders, encouragement of actors and leaders to participate, support and strengthening of local groups, legitimization of the discussion forums through involvement with government, formalization of decisions taken through legislation, and monitoring of the management efficacy.     

From community-based to co-management: Improvement or deterioration in fisheries governance in the Cherai Poyil fishery in the Cochin Estuary,Kerala, India?

During the last 50 years, several different forms of fisheries governance have been tried and failed in the Cochin Estuary, Kerala, India. The latest shift has been from a community-based system to a co-management system, and this paper evaluates the current system in the light of the theoretical debate over the respective merits of community-based management and co-management. The paper is based on documentary material and data from interviews carried out during fieldwork in 2004, from which it concludes that provided the co-management system incorporates community principles within it, it will be an effective form of fisheries governance.     

Unfinished business: Taiwan's experience with rights-based coastal fisheries management

This paper examines a case involving a mix of Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries, co-management and the competition for using coastal zones. In the 2000s, Taiwan's government initiated a remodeling of the fishery right system, which is a rights-based approach to fisheries management, as an attempt to address conflicts between fishers and developers regarding the use of coastal space and to put community-based co-management into practice. The paper particularly compares the system before and after 2000 and identifies areas of concern in the implementation of the remodeled system. The results show that the government's support for this system signifies progress in the right direction. However, concerns emerge, mostly involving fishers' low participation, fishermen's association's lack of technical skills and financial resources, and the division of management responsibility. The government is advised to play a more active role in dealing with these concerns. Finally, the paper reveals that the factor of competition for using coastal zones poses a challenge to co-management, and suggests a holistic view with integrated coastal management or marine spatial planning practices, for developing co-management under the fishery right system.     

Dominant discourses,among fishers and middlemen,of the factors affecting coral reef fish distributions in Solomon Islands

Understanding resource stakeholders' perceptions of resource condition and management is vital to the formulation of efficacious management policy to sustain natural systems because agreement among stakeholders is likely to result in more effective outcomes. Understanding perceptions is particularly important in the context of coral reefs because threats are often diverse and management options are numerous, and therefore perceptions are likely to be diverse. This study identified the dominant discourses of reef fish decline, and increase, among 119 fishers and fish traders (herein middlemen) in Solomon Islands, and compared these discourses to current scientific knowledge. Discourses were then explored for dominant themes that might improve understanding of resource user perceptions. The findings suggest that certain fisher and middlemen discourses align with scientific understanding of the causal links between human activity and fish stock declines, and that many of the elicited management strategies are aligned with current scientific recommendations. A theme that emerged across the fisher and middlemen discourses of fish decline was a dichotomy in perception between fishing for economic affluence and fishing for subsistence and economic survival. A theme that emerged across discourses of fish increase was a dichotomy between support for command-and-control approaches and support for community-based approaches to management. Differences between some fisher and middlemen discourses were explained by the location in which interviews were conducted suggesting consensual perceptions achieved through local knowledge networks. Similarity between scientific understanding and local perceptions suggests that local resource users are aware of, and might support, fishery management strategies based on scientific evidence. Such strategies must consider factors such as location because resource user perceptions differ between locations and because many threats to the fishery and preferred management strategies are likely to be context specific.     

Property relations and the co-management of small-scale fisheries in Costa Rica: Lessons from Marine Areas for Responsible Fishing in the Gulf of Nicoya

Marine fisheries in Costa Rica have become characterized by overexploitation, ineffective centralized management and increased conflict among fishing sectors. Despite high economic and socio-cultural importance of small-scale fisheries, no formal mechanisms existed until recently to facilitate the participation of fishers in management. Marine Areas for Responsible Fishing (Áreas Marinas para la Pesca Responsable, AMPR) were legally recognized in 2009 as a co-management approach, enabling the designation of spatial management areas to be implemented collaboratively by artisanal fishers and government agencies. In this paper, we examine property and access relations shaping this emerging participatory management model using case studies primarily from the Gulf of Nicoya region. The policy demonstrably improves upon some aspects of management, for instance, by allowing artisanal fishers to determine gear restrictions within designated areas. However, the model lacks other attributes of more successful co-management scenarios, particularly exclusive access. The fugitive nature of resources further complicates property relations over these fisheries. The cases explored also illustrate broader institutional and systemic issues that preclude effective participatory management. Lessons from the region are used to propose significant shifts to the management of small-scale fisheries in Costa Rica.     

A tenuous triumvirate: The role of independent biologists in Chile's co-management regime for shellfish

Fisheries co-management is usually defined by shared decision-making between fishers and the state. Chile's co-management regime for shellfish differs from the norm by incorporating a third party: independent biological consultants. This paper evaluates Chile's system and compares three-party co-management to two-party systems. It finds that consultants fulfill functions absent in two-party co-management, such as playing an intermediary role between fishers and the state, and also perform certain functions better than either of the other two entities involved, such as acting as a credible and objective source of information. It then discusses ways to perfect Chile's system, such as stepping up knowledge transfer activities so as to further empower fishers.     

From community-based to centralised national management—A wrong turning for the governance of the marine protected area in Apo Island,Philippines?

Before the mid-1990s, Apo Island, Philippines, was often described as one of the world's best examples of community-based marine management. This paper studies the less-documented transition of the island during the late 1990s from community-based management to centralised national state management. Extensive interviewing of islanders has revealed deep misgivings about the centralised regime—the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB). PAMB's aim of implementing the National Integrated Protected Areas Systems (NIPAS) Act was initially looked upon favourably by islanders, but it has lost that support because of its exclusion of stakeholders from management and its poor institutional performance. The paper's conclusion is that the implementation of the NIPAS Act highlights the limitations of top-down management, and that there is a need to restore an element of local stakeholder participation in the governance of Apo's marine protected area (MPA). A system of co-management between community and national state actors is essential to ensure the long-term sustainability of Apo's marine resources.     

Livelihoods and co-management in the Tam Giang lagoon,Vietnam

The Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon is a microcosm of the complex social-ecological challenges experienced in similar systems throughout Southeast Asia. Intensification and rapid change in livelihood strategies (production and gear type) have increased conflict and placed a significant strain on aquatic resources in the lagoon. Such changes are compounded by near-shore agricultural development and urbanization. In the long-term, resolving livelihood conflicts and sustaining ecosystems will require a shift in the planning and management model from one that is top-down and enforcement driven, to one involving greater decision making and management authority at the local level. Drawing on experiences with a long-term action research process in the lagoon, this paper examines the challenges and opportunities of implementing a co-management approach. Of particular focus is the growing recognition among authorities of the value of engaging local fishers and fish farmers in participatory process to resolve complex livelihood challenges, and the development of local management bodies (newly formed Fishing Associations) as a basis for emerging co-management of aquatic resources.     

Mutual risk: P&I insurance clubs and maritime safety and environmental performance

This paper examines the role of co-operative self-regulation, or co-management, in safety and environmental regulation in the shipping industry. The focus is on Protection and Indemnity (P&I) Clubs in which third-party liabilities of 90% of the world's fleet (by tonnage) are insured. In theory, this creates a mutual interest amongst shipowners in minimising risk. The paper examines how this mutual interest is translated into individual behaviour, and the institutional challenges involved in maintaining mutuality within and between the Clubs. There follows an evaluation of the legitimacy of enrolling private interest groups in regulation in which a wide range of actors hold a stake. The paper concludes that P&I Clubs make a modest contribution to safety and environmental regulation, but also have some potentially unfavourable wider social implications.     

Co-management and “consciousness”: Fishers’ assimilation of management principles in Chile

Chile's new Management Area system delegates management responsibility to organizations of artisanal shell-fishers on the condition that they team with professionally trained marine biologists. A survey of participating fishers in Chile's Fourth and Fifth regions examined four social benefits predicted to result from this type of co-management: (1) improved rapport between fishers and the state, (2) greater awareness among fishers of ecology and the benefits of management, (3) cooperation between fishers and scientists, and (4) unity between fishers. A discussion analyzes the principal benefit encountered—fishers’ newfound “consciousness” of the value of management—within the context of co-management and territorial use rights.     

Migrant fishers of Pemba: Drivers,impacts and mediating factors

Most of the fishers of coastal East Africa particularly among the Bajuni, Kojani, Macua and Vezo ethnic communities have historically practiced migration. This study explores the strategies used by migrant fishers’ of Pemba in the Western Indian Ocean region. By adopting a modified sustainable livelihoods framework (SLF), the study uses in-depth interviews and questionnaires to explore the life histories of the fishers in migrant communities, their motivations to migrate, and their associated socioeconomic and ecological implications. Results point out to a complexity of factors contributing to migration including natural, to economic and social factors. Interaction of such factors is instrumental in shaping fisher migration as an activity into an important livelihood strategy. The study concludes that SLF provides holistic understanding of migration. However the incorporation of the ‘livelihood spaces’ extends this knowledge by integrating the spectrum of spatial aspects. This understanding is critical in the design of policies and interventions necessary to ensure resource sustainability and secure fishers livelihoods. This multi-method approach is critical in empirical study of fisher migration.     

Artisanal fishers' perceptions regarding coastal co-management policies in Chile and their potentials to scale-up marine biodiversity conservation

No-take Marine Protected Areas (Nt-MPAs) constitute an indispensable tool for biodiversity conservation. Nevertheless, there are other instruments such as marine coastal co-management policy frameworks which may be also considered as tools for conservation or as ancillary conservation instruments. Using focus groups, semi-structured interviews and survey questionnaires we analysed small-scale artisanal fishers' perceptions towards a coastal co-management regime in Chile and the potential to generate capacities and a social setting to scale-up marine conservation. Empirical evidence from the study shows artisanal fishers have indeed been empowered through the coastal co-management experience; however, there exist heterogeneity in their willingness to participate in the creation of Nt-MPAs, mainly determined by occupational mobility. Chilean artisanal fishers strongly support a bottom-up process in the conservation of marine biodiversity, though the need for top-down steering and guidance is also stressed, especially regarding enforcement.