Diffusion in magmas at depth in the Earth: The effects of pressure and dissolved H2O

Experimental data on cation diffusion in silicate melts and glasses at atmospheric pressure cannot be quantitatively applied to diffusion in magmas at depth because pressure and dissolved H₂O have significant effects. Diffusivities of Ca and Cs in soda-lime aluminosilicate melt are reduced by roughly an order of magnitude as pressure increases from 1 to 30 kbar at 1100°C (in the case of calcium, the pressure effect is smaller at higher temperatures). The influence of dissolved H₂O is opposite to and (for some ions) far more important than that of pressure: at 700°C, Cs diffusion in granitic obsidian is enhanced by four orders of magnitude by the addition of 6 wt.% H₂O, and Ca diffusivity increases by 2.5 orders of magnitude. Sodium diffusion, on the other hand, is relatively immune to changes in H₂O content.The retarding effect of pressure on diffusion in deep-seated magmas is largely compensated by higher magmatic temperatures, such that overall “depth” effects on diffusion are of secondary importance — diffusion rates in mantle melts are probably well approximated by 1-atm, near-liquidus values. Diffusion rates in crustal magmas, however, are extremely sensitive to H₂O content, so that models of rate-controlled processes in hydrous magmas may be grossly in error if 1-atm diffusivity values are used.     

Predicting dissolved oxygen in the Chesapeake Bay: applications and implications

Eutrophic depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO) and its consequences for ecosystem dynamics have been a central theme of research, assessment and management policies for several decades in the Chesapeake Bay. Ongoing forecast efforts predict the extent of the summer hypoxic/anoxic area due to nutrient loads from the watershed. However, these models neither predict DO levels nor address the intricate interactions among various ecological processes. The prediction of spatially explicit DO levels in the Chesapeake Bay can eventually lead to a reliable depiction of the comprehensive ecological structure and functioning, and can also allow the quantification of the role of nutrient reduction strategies in water quality management. In this paper, we describe a three dimensional empirical model to predict DO levels in the Chesapeake Bay as a function of water temperature, salinity and dissolved nutrient concentrations (TDN and TDP). The residual analysis shows that predicted DO values compare well with observations. Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) and root mean square error-observations standard deviation ratio (RSR) are used to evaluate the performance of the empirical model; the scores demonstrate the usability of model predictions (NSE, surface layer = 0.82–0.86; middle layer = 0.65–0.82; bottom layer = 0.70–0.82; RSR surface layer = 0.37–0.44; middle layer = 0.43–0.58 and bottom layer = 0.43–0.54). The predicted DO values and other physical outputs from downscaling of regional weather and climate predictions, or forecasts from hydrodynamic models, can be used to forecast various ecological components. Such forecasts would be useful for both recreational and commercial users of the Chesapeake Bay.     

Chemical variations of magmas at Izu-Oshima volcano,Japan: plagioclase-controlled and differentiated magmas

Systematic analyses of the major-element chemistry of products of several eruptions during syn-and post-caldera stages of Izu-Oshima volcano were compiled. Comparisons of the products of large-scale eruptions in 1338?, 1421? and 1777–1778, of intermediate-scale eruptions in 1950–1951 and 1986, and of small-scale eruptions in 1954, 1964 and 1974 clearly show the existence of two types of magmas. One is “plagioclase-controlled” and the other is “differentiated” magma (multimineral-controlled); i.e. the bulk chemistry of the first magma type is controlled by plagioclase addition or removal, while that of the second type is controlled by fractionation of plagioclase, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and titanomagnetite. Eruptions of Izu-Oshima volcano have occurred at the summit and along the flanks. Summit eruptions tap only plagioclase-controlled magmas, while flank eruptions supply both magma types. It is considered unlikely that both magma types would coexist in the same magma chamber based on the petrology. In the case of the 1986 eruption, the flank magma was isolated sometime in the past from the summit magma chamber or central conduit, and formed small magma pockets, where further differentiation occurred due to relatively rapid cooling. In a period of quiescence prior to the 1986 eruption, new magma was supplied to the summit magma chamber, and the summit eruption began. The dike intrusion or fracturing around the small magma pockets triggered the flank eruption of the differentiated magma. This model can be applied to the large-scale flank eruption in 1338(?) which erupted differentiated magmas. In 1421(?), the flank eruption tapped plagioclase-controlled magma. In this case, the isolated magmas from the summit magma chamber directly penetrated the flank without differentiation.     

Water and magmas: Thermal effects of exsolution

The temperature changes caused by water exsolution from magma have been determined through calorimetric measurements performed on phonolitic and albitic compositions. The enthalpies of mixing of water with these melts have been derived from HF solution calorimetry, made at 323 K on glass samples containing up to 5 wt.% water, together with heat capacity data for the same series of samples. Mixing between aluminosilicate melts and water appears nearly ideal at magmatic temperatures, with small enthalpies of mixing that are negative for both melts at low pressures but can become positive for albite at high pressure. Regardless of the endothermic or exothermic nature of the process, water exsolution is associated with negligible temperature changes of only a few degrees even when 5 wt.% H₂O is degassed. However, thermal effects might be greater for more depolymerized melts such as basalts and related compositions.     

Isotope distribution of dissolved carbonate species in southeastern coastal aquifers of Sicily (Italy)

Concentrations of major ions and the δ¹³C composition of dissolved inorganic carbon in groundwater and submarine groundwater discharges in the area between Siracusa and Ragusa provinces, southeastern Sicily, representing coastal carbonate aquifers, are presented and discussed. Most of groundwater analysed belongs to calcium bicarbonate type, in agreement with the geological nature of carbonate host rocks. Carbonate groundwater acquires, besides the dissolution of carbonate minerals, dissolved carbon (and the relative isotopic composition) from the atmosphere and from soil biological activity. In fact, δ¹³C values and total dissolved inorganic carbon contents show that both these sources contribute to carbon dissolved species in the waters studied. Finally, mixing with seawater in the second main factor of groundwater mineralization Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Imaging of the Antarctic ionosphere: Experimental results

Ground-based dual-frequency GPS observations can be used to create images of electron density. This is well established for the Arctic ionosphere; here one of the first results is presented for the Antarctic. In this study, the GPS receivers in the Antarctic are supplemented with another GPS receiver onboard CHAMP. The aim of the study is to demonstrate the technique for investigating geophysical events, for example, an ionospheric disturbance period on 11 February 2004. The images have been validated by in-situ measurements from DMSP and CHAMP satellites, as well as Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) convection patterns, which are able to confirm the location, presence, and transportation of large-scale plasma patches. This study indicates that although the convection still dominates in the high-latitude ionosphere, soft precipitation within the polar cap may play a role in the evolution of the polar patches. It also illustrates the potential for future multi-instrument studies of the Antarctic.     

Permeability development in vesiculating magmas: implications for fragmentation

 Fragmentation, or the "coming apart" of magma during a plinian eruption, remains one of the least understood processes in volcanology, although assumptions about the timing and mechanisms of fragmentation are key parameters in all existing eruption models. Despite evidence to the contrary, most models assume that fragmentation occurs at a critical vesicularity (volume percent vesicles) of 75–83%. We propose instead that the degree to which magma is fragmented is determined by factors controlling bubble coalescence: magma viscosity, temperature, bubble size distribution, bubble shapes, and time. Bubble coalescence in vesiculating magmas creates permeability which serves to connect the dispersed gas phase. When sufficiently developed, permeability allows subsequent exsolved and expanded gas to escape, thus preserving a sufficiently interconnected region of vesicular magma as a pumice clast, rather than fully fragmenting it to ash. For this reason pumice is likely to preserve information about (a) how permeability develops and (b) the critical permeability needed to insure clast preservation. We present measurements and calculations that constrain the conditions (vesicularity, bubble size distribution, time, pressure difference, viscosity) necessary for adequate permeability to develop. We suggest that magma fragments explosively to ash when and where, in a heterogeneously vesiculating magma, these conditions are not met. Both the development of permeability by bubble wall thinning and rupture and the loss of gas through a permeable network of bubbles require time, consistent with the observation that degree of fragmentation (i.e., amount of ash) increases with increasing eruption rate. Received: 5 July 1995 / Accepted: 27 December 1995     

The transport of xenoliths in magmas

Field measurements of the rheology of Hawaiian and Etnean lavas have shown that, on eruption, they behave as Bingham liquids with yield strengths in the range 70–450 N/m². Ultramafic nodules entrained in a Bingham liquid cannot settle unless the stress they impose on the liquid exceeds approximately 5–7 times its yield strength. Consequently magmas with yield strengths of 10–1000 N/m² can transport xenoliths up to 30 cm diameter without settling occurring. The size of nodules commonly observed rarely exceeds 30 cm. A review of experimental data shows that, when conditions are appropriate for settling, the terminal velocities of nodules in magmas are substantially slower if a Bingham rather than Newtonian Model is assumed.The view that large nodules imply fast rates of magma ascent is rejected. A case is presented for slow rates of ascent being more suitable for nodule transport as there is more opportunity for cooling, crystallisation and hence development of a yield strength. The relative abundance of nodules in the alkaline suite may be a consequence of their slow rates of ascent, whereas their absence in tholeiitic melts may be a consequence of rapid ascent rates. This interpretation is compatible with deductions on their relative rates of ascent based on other geological evidence.     

饱和碳酸盐岩地震频带弹性参数响应的实验机理分析研究: 压力与孔隙流体影响

碳酸盐岩储层中蕴藏着全球近一半油气储量,也是我国深层、超深层的重点勘探领域.然而,深层碳酸盐岩复杂孔隙结构导致其储层条件下岩石物理响应机理不明,这对有效地震储层表征与流体预测带来了巨大挑战.目前,国内尚缺乏系统开展针对深层碳酸盐岩储层的地震频带岩石物理实验测试研究.厘清深层油藏开发中因流体流动而引起的储层压力场与孔隙流体性质变化对地震频带弹性参数影响机制,在一系列地球物理应用中具有十分重要的意义.通过开展跨频带（地震低频+超声高频）弹性参数实验测试,本文系统研究了压力与孔隙流体对深层碳酸盐岩弹性模量及其衰减的影响机制.针对中低孔渗碳酸盐岩储层岩芯,分别测量了其在干燥、饱和盐水与甘油下的弹性参数,分析了弹性模量对压力与频率敏感性.干燥岩芯杨氏模量频变特性显著低于饱和流体岩芯实测数据,且饱和甘油岩芯模量及其衰减均高于饱和盐水测量结果.部分饱和盐水岩芯的地震频带实测结果表明,杨氏模量与泊松比均随含水饱和度升高而增大,其频散程度却略有降低.此外,基于干燥岩芯弹性参数不依赖频率的前提,受迫振动法低频实验所得岩石弹性模量和衰减数据与三孔隙类型喷射流模型预测结果相一致,证实喷射流是引起复杂孔隙微观结构储层岩芯频变黏弹性响应的主控因素.

     

Mechanisms of bubble coalescence in silicic magmas

Bubble coalescence is an important process that strongly affects magmatic degassing. Without coalescence, bubbles remain isolated from one another in the melt, severely limiting gas release. Despite this fact, very little has been done to identify coalescence mechanisms from textures of magmatic rocks or to quantify the dynamics of bubble coalescence in melts. In this paper, we present a systematic study of bubble-coalescence mechanisms and dynamics in natural and experimentally produced bubbly rhyolite magma. We have used a combination of natural observations aided by high-resolution X-ray computed tomography, petrological experiments, and physical models to identify different types of bubble?Cbubble interaction that lead to coalescence on the timescales of magma ascent and eruption. Our observations and calculations suggest that bubbles most efficiently coalesce when inter-bubble melt walls thin by stretching rather than by melt drainage from between converging bubble walls. Orders of magnitude are more rapid than melt drainage, bubble wall stretching produces walls thin enough that inter-bubble pressure gradients may cause the melt wall to dimple, further enhancing coalescence. To put these results into volcanogical context, we have identified magma ascent conditions where each coalescence mechanism should act, and discuss the physical conditions for preserving coalescence structures in natural pumice. The timescales we propose could improve volcanic eruption models, which currently do not account for bubble coalescence. Although we do not address the effect of shear strain on bubble coalescence, the processes discussed here may operate in several different eruption regimes, including vesiculation of lava domes, post-fragmentation frothing of vulcanian bombs, and bubbling of pyroclasts in conduits.     

Petrological variation of large-volume felsic magmas from Hakkoda-Towada caldera cluster: Implications for the origin of high-K felsic magmas in the Northeast Japan Arc

Abstract The Hakkoda‐Towada caldera cluster (HTCC) is a typical Late Cenozoic caldera cluster located in the northern part of the Northeast Japan Arc. The HTCC consists of five caldera volcanoes, active between 3.5 Ma and present time. The felsic magmas can be classified into high‐K (HK‐) type and medium‐ to low‐K (MLK‐) type based on their whole‐rock chemistry. The HK‐type magmas are characterized by higher K₂O and Rb contents and higher ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios than MLK‐type magmas. Both magmas cannot be derived from fractional crystallization of any basaltic magma in the HTCC. Assimilation‐fractional crystallization model calculations show that crustal assimilation is necessary for producing the felsic magmas, and HK‐type magmas are produced by higher degree of crustal assimilation with fractional crystallization than MLK‐type magmas. Although MLK‐type magmas were erupted throughout HTCC activity, HK‐type magmas were erupted only during the initial stage. The temporal variations of magma types suggest the large contribution of crustal components in the initial stage. A major volcanic hiatus of 3 my before the HTCC activity suggests a relatively cold crust in the initial stage. The cold crust probably promoted crustal assimilation and fractional crystallization, and caused the initial generation of HK‐type magmas. Subsequently, the repeated supply of mantle‐derived magmas raised temperature in the crust and formed relatively stable magma pathways. Such a later system produced MLK‐type magmas with lesser crustal components. The MLK‐type magmas are common and HK‐type magmas are exceptional during the Pliocene–Quaternary volcanism in the Northeast Japan Arc. This fact suggests that exceptional conditions are necessary for the production of HK‐type magmas. A relatively cold crust caused by a long volcanic hiatus (several million years) is considered as one of the probable conditions. Intensive crustal assimilation and fractional crystallization promoted by the cold crust may be necessary for the generation of highly evolved HK‐type felsic magmas.     

Evolution,transfer and release of magmas and volcanic gases: An introduction

In this introduction, recent progress in the study of the evolution, transfer and release of magmas and volcanic gases is briefly reviewed, based on discussions at the MAG2007 international conference held in Taipei, Taiwan, in April 2007. The meeting pooled the diverse expertise of igneous and volcanic gas geochemists. This special issue, which presents six case studies covering a range of topics from variations in mantle source compositions to the nature of volcanic degassing, reflects that diversity.     

Fractionation trends of basalt magmas in lava flows

Chemical compositions of schlieren in basalt flows are compared with those of the host rocks for tracing the fractionation trends of basalt magmas under extrusive conditions. In the Warner high-alumina basalt of California and in the tholeiite of Hawaii and Japan, total iron increases markedly from the host rock to the schlieren whileSiO ₂ is nearly constant. In the high-alumina basalt of Huzi Volcano and in the tholeiite near Catania, Italy, total iron is nearly constant during fractionation whileSiO ₂ increases. In basalts of the hypersthenic rock series or calc-alkali rock series from California, total iron is also nearly constant whileSiO ₂ increases. The difference in fractionation trend in these flows is attributable to the difference of the state of oxidation of iron in the original magmas. Oxygen partial pressure of the magmas would not be maintained constant during the fractionation of extrusive bodies.     

Distribution of Ca in highly fractionated peralkaline magmas

Many peralkaline rhyolites and granites contain less than 0.15 wt.% CaO. In contrast, strongly fractionated peralkaline nepheline syenites and phonolites usually contain greater than 0.5 wt.% CaO. Consideration of known distributions of Ca between crystals and liquid in conjunction with crystal fractionation does not provide an adequate explanation of the contrasting levels of Ca depletion observed. Examination of the suites of late-crystallizing accessory phases in peralkaline rocks suggests that Ca is more soluble in undersaturated magmas than in over-saturated magmas. Activities for CaO in silicic and phonolitic rocks are calculated and the latter have higher CaO activities than the former and this may manifest itself in the different suites of accessory phases and levels of Ca depletion noted in natural rocks.     

Graphical analysis of enthalpy-composition relationships in mixed magmas

Enthalpy-composition diagrams (H^*-X) calculated from existing temperature-composition (T-X) phase diagrams and thermodynamic data provide a simple and effective means for evaluating the enthalpy-temperature effects of magma mixing. If athermal mixing is assumed, adiabatic mixing lines on H^*-X diagrams are straight lines because enthalpy, unlike temperature, is an extensive property of a system. Comparison of binary T-X diagrams with their derivative H^*-X diagrams shows that incorrect predictions can be obtained when T-X diagrams are used to analyze mixing problems.An H^*-X diagram calculated using experimentally determined phase equilibria for anhydrous basalt-rhyolite mixtures predicts that adiabatic mixing of basalt and rhyolite at their respective liquidus temperatures will result in small amounts of crystallization ( < 2 wt.% ). Because the phase equilibria of hydrous basalt-rhyolite mixtures have not yet been determined, an H^*-X diagram for such mixtures cannot be constructed. However, existing hydrous phase equilibria can be used to predict whether adiabatic mixtures of anhydrous basalt and hydrous rhyolite will be super- or subliquidus. Calculations at P_total = 200 MPa show that on an H^*-X diagram a mixing chord drawn between anhydrous basalt and water-saturated rhyolite at their respective liquidus temperatures lies below the enthalpy values calculated for a Paricutin andesite and Mt. St. Helens dacite at their estimated liquidus temperatures. This indicates that the liquidus for mixtures of anhydrous basalt and water-saturated rhyolite is noticeably convex upward, suggesting that larger amounts of crystallization will occur than in the anhydrous case.     

Rutile saturation in magmas: implications for TiNbTa depletion in island-arc basalts

The TiO₂ contents of rutile-saturated melts ranging from basalt to rhyodacite have been investigated at P = 8–30 kbar and T = 1000–1300°C under hydrous, CO₂-saturated, and volatile-absent conditions. Dissolved TiO₂ is positively correlated with T and not strongly dependent on P_total. For fixed P and T, TiO₂ content decreases markedly as the melts become more felsic. The distribution of TiO₂ between rutile and liquid, expressed as a wt.% concentration ratio, D (rut/liq), is given by: In D = −3.16 + (9373T) + 0.026P − 0.152FM where T is in Kelvins, P in kbar and FM is a melt composition parameter, FM = [Na+K+ 2(Ca+Fe+Mg)]/Al· 1/Si in which the chemical symbols represent cation fractions. The first term expresses the competition of aluminate and titanate anions for charge-compensating cations, and the second term expresses the inverse dependence of dissolved TiO₂ on SiO₂ content. There is no apparent dependence of rutile solubility on water content.For ranges of probable solidus conditions, rutile saturation in basaltic, andesitic, and dacitic liquids requires 7–9, 5–7, and 1–3 wt.% TiO₂, respectively. These concentrations are well in excess of those found in the respective rock types, so depletion in Nb, Ta, and Ti and reduced Nb/U and Nb/Th ratios in volcanic rocks erupted at convergent plate margins cannot be attributed to residual rutile in their source regions. Thus, Nb, Ta and Ti depletion must be an inherent property of the source region.We suggest that the island-arc source region has been depleted in Nb and Ta by a previous episode of melt extraction (MORB), zoning refining, or equilibration with a percolating melt or fluid. Such a process markedly depletes the LILE and HFSE element concentrations in the residuum, but ratios such as Nb/U, Nb/Th and U/Th remain relatively constant due to similar solid-melt partition coefficients. The depletion of Nb relative to Th in the source regions of island-arc magmas occurs during hybridization of the source by rutile-saturated (Nb/Ta-depleted) melts or aqueous fluids. If the hybridizing agent is a melt, a relatively felsic composition, produced under low T (900°) hydrous conditions, is required.     

Cyclic response of masonry infilled RC frames: Experimental results and simplified modeling

The recent large interest in nonlinear seismic analysis methods, static and dynamic, has required proper strategies of modeling based on reliable, and at the same time easy to use, constitutive laws for the structural elements. Regarding the behavior of framed structures, special attention has to be devoted to infills because of the key role they play in modifying overall stiffness, strength and ductility under seismic excitation. Pointing out the attention on this topic the paper discusses a criteria for modeling the structural behavior of infills based on a macromodeling approach, that is to say on the substitution of infills with diagonal pin jointed struts. Is here shown how multilinear plastic link elements governed by a hysteretic Pivot model, available in different FEM codes, can be appropriately used to model the equivalent struts to perform linear or nonlinear analyses. In order to enlarge experimental knowledge on cyclic behavior of infilled frames structures and as reference for developing the above mentioned modeling strategy, an experimental campaign on single-storey, single-bay, fully infilled frames with different kinds of masonry and subjected to lateral cyclical loads, was carried out, and some others available in the literature are referred to. Validation of Pivot modeling approach was carried out comparing experimental results and computer simulations of the experimental tests. In the paper hysteresis parameters values calibrating Pivot law are also given for involved masonry infills typologies and some proposals for correlation between strength and stiffness of infilled frames and of masonry infills are provided as a tool for the quick calibration of the Pivot model in practical applications.     

Future climate and runoff projections across New South Wales,Australia: results and practical applications

This paper describes the rainfall–runoff modelling for New South Wales (NSW) and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) under historical climate and the likely changes to runoff around the year 2030 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) SRES A1B global warming scenario. Results show that the mean annual historical rainfall and runoff, averaged over the entire region, are 516 and 55 mm, respectively. There is considerable uncertainty in the global climate modelling (GCM) of rainfall response in the region to global warming. The majority of GCMs show a decrease in the mean annual rainfall and the median estimate indicates that future mean annual runoff in the region in ～2030 relative to ～1990 will be lower by 0–20% in the southern parts, no change to a slight reduction in the eastern parts and higher by 0–20% in the northwest corner. Averaged across the entire region, the median estimate is a 5% decrease in the mean annual runoff and the extreme estimates range from a 14% decrease to a 10% increase in mean annual runoff. This is the first comprehensive study on the hydrological impacts of climate change done in NSW that covers the entire state. Outputs from this study are being used to underpin the hydrology for a number of major climate change impact studies that are presently underway across NSW. The results and output datasets from this study will be available through a web interface and they can be used by all state government agencies and industries in NSW to plan for and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tectonic stress controls on ascent and emplacement of magmas

The tectonic stresses can significantly affect the propagation of a magma-filled crack. It has been pointed out that the rheological boundaries control the emplacement of magmas through the effect of stress. However, it has not been clarified how the role of rheological boundaries depends on the regional tectonic and thermal states. We have evaluated the role of rheological boundaries under various tectonic and thermal conditions and found that the level of magma emplacement may jump according to the changes in the tectonic force or the surface heat flow. The stress profiles were estimated by a simple model of lithospheric deformation. We employed a three-layer model of the lithosphere; the upper crust, the lower crust and the upper mantle have different rheological properties. A constant horizontal force is applied to the lithosphere, and the horizontal strain is assumed to be independent of depth. When realistic tectonic forces (>10¹¹ N/m) are applied, the rheological boundaries mainly control the emplacement of magma. The emplacement is expected at the MOHO, the upper–lower crust boundary, and the brittle–ductile boundary. For lower tectonic forces (<10¹¹ N/m), the tectonic stress no longer plays an important role in the emplacement of magmas. When the tectonic stress controls the emplacement, the roles of rheological boundaries strongly depend on the surface heat flow. When the surface heat flow is relatively high (>80 mW/m²), the stress in the mantle is quite low and the MOHO cannot trap ascending magmas. For relatively low heat flow (<80 mW/m²), on the other hand, the MOHO acts as a magma trap, and the upper–lower crust boundary acts as a magma trap only when the magma supply rate is sufficiently high. Our results suggest that the emplacement depth can change responding to the change in the tectonic force and/or that in the surface heat flow. This may provide us a key to understand the relation between the evolution of a volcanic region and its tectonic and/or thermal history.