Temperature effects on engineering properties of loess: Application to a loess of the Parisian Basin from 5°c to 80°c

Huret, C., Cojean, R. and Deveughéle, M., 1988. Temperature effects on engineering properties of loess: application to a loess of the Parisian Basin from 5°C to 80°C. Eng. Geol., 25: 209–228.

We present here an experimental work about the engineering behaviour of a calcareous loess from the Parisian Basin, the Rungis loess, in a temperature range of 5°C and 80°C. Mechanical testings on a collapsed and remolded material were realized with a specific apparatus. It allows us to give a stress and temperature history to the material while the process remains simple.

The temperature speeds up primary consolidation which is attained five times quicker at 80°C than at 20°C. The viscous flow of the skeleton and the compressibility are also increased in the same range. The consolidation phenomenon is theoretically analysed using both the classical Terzaghi approach and a rate process theory. The volume variations induced by a modification of the sample temperature is analysed and each phenomenon (thermic dilation, double layer modification, granular rearrangement) is emphasized.

All along this work, we have evaluated the specific characteristics of the loess: granularity, geochemistry, physico—chemical forces and structure. We emphasized the study of the microstructure of the material using pore size distribution measures by mercury intrusion and scanning electron microscopy. This permits us to relate the mechanical behaviour of the material to its micro-structure and to the pysico—chemical properties of the particles.     

Effects of temperature on strength and compressibility of sand-bentonite buffer

Dense sand-bentonite buffer (γ_d = 1.67Mg/m³) has been proposed in Canada as one of several barriers for isolating nuclear fuel waste. The buffer will be required to function under conditions of high total pressures and elevated temperatures approaching 100°C. Summary results are presented from two test programs: (1) isothermal consolidated undrained triaxial (CIU¯) tests; and (2) isothermal drained constant-p′ (CID) triaxial tests. Specimens were consolidated at effective stresses up to 9.0 MPa and temperatures up to 100°C.

The results indicate parallel hardening lines at systematically lower values of specific volume at elevated temperatures. In shear, increased temperatures produced lower values of maximum deviator stressq_f, and higher pore water pressure changesΔu_f. The net result is curved peak strength envelops in plots ofq_f versusp_f′ that are higher at elevated temperatures, even though the strengths,q_f of individual specimens are lower. The critical state strength envelope is curved inq, p′-planes.

The effect of drained heating on buffer to 100°C is not marked. Compressibilities, stiffnesses, strengths, and pore water pressure generation are all affected, but none of the changes are great.     

初始组构各向异性对砂土力学特性及临界状态的影响

采用离散元方法,利用半径扩展法和重力沉积法分别生成具有初始各向同性和各向异性内结构的试样,并开展三轴不排水压缩和拉伸试验,研究不同制样方法产生的初始各向异性对砂土宏微观力学特性及其临界状态的影响。运用组构张量对砂土的各向异性进行量化,分析不同初始组构各向异性对组构张量演化的影响并确定了组构张量的临界值。试验结果表明：初始组构各向异性对试样的剪胀性有重要影响,由于受重力影响形成初始各向异性,其各向异性程度越大、组构方向与加载方向越一致,剪胀性越显著;初始组构各向异性对试样的临界状态没有影响,砂土的组构张量具有唯一的临界状态值。     

基于三轴试验的黄土K0固结特性研究

静止土压力系数(K₀)是岩土工程中计算侧向土压力的关键参数,原状和重塑黄土的K₀系数在固结过程中的发展规律明显区别于黏土或砂土。为研究围压和初始孔隙比对原状和重塑黄土的K₀系数的影响,采用加装高精度局部径向位移计(LVDT)的应力路径三轴仪开展了K₀固结试验研究,结果表明:(1)重塑黄土的K₀系数受初始孔隙比(e₀)的影响较为明显,当试样的初始孔隙比减小(从0.775变为0.503),其K₀系数的最大降幅为55%;然而原状黄土的K₀系数受有效围压(σ₃′)的影响较为明显,比如在σ₃′ < 350kPa时,K₀系数为0.77~0.85,在σ₃′>350kPa时,K₀系数为0.46~0.51;(2)在固结过程中,原状黄土试样和重塑黄土试样的K₀系数均发生陡降,具体表现为重塑黄土密样(e₀<0.6)的陡降发生在固结的起始阶段,重塑黄土松样(e₀ ≈ 0.77)的陡降发生在有效围压接近100kPa,而原状黄土试样的陡降发生在有效围压为350kPa附近;(3)在相同的有效围压和密度条件下,原状黄土的K₀系数大于重塑黄土。采用核磁共振技术(NMR)获取了重塑和原状黄土的孔隙分布,并辅以试样的超孔隙水压力、排水体积等数据进行了讨论,发现结构性是造成黄土K₀系数差异的主要原因。     

河流作用诱发黄土滑坡机理

在对泾阳南塬实地调查中发现,位于泾河与塬边交切处,发育有数量较多的黄土滑坡,分析认为河流作用是该类滑坡发生的主要诱发因素。通过实地调查,对饱和Q₂黄土进行减围压三轴剪切试验以及数值模拟,研究河流作用诱发黄土滑坡的形成机理。研究表明:土体抗剪强度与应力路径有关,减围压三轴剪切状态下,土体抗剪强度指标小于常规三轴剪切状态下的抗剪强度指标,土体更容易发生剪切破坏;斜坡坡脚处存在关键块体,对斜坡整体稳定性起着控制作用。河流作用诱发黄土滑坡就是因为河流的持续侧蚀,造成坡脚关键块体逐步滑塌,最终导致斜坡失稳滑动。      

增湿时黄土的抗剪强度特性分析

采用固结不排水剪切方法,对非饱和原状Q3黄土进行了增湿情况下的三轴剪切试验,得到了湿陷性黄土的极限强度与初始含水量及围压的关系曲线,分析了增湿过程中黄土抗剪强度的变化规律。结果表明,原始含水量下非饱和原状黄土的强度包线是由两条直线组成的折线,高含水量时的强度包线仍符合莫尔-库仑理论准则。非饱和黄土的黏聚力随初始含水量的增大而迅速降低,而内摩擦角受初始含水量变化的影响较小。随初始含水量的增大,总应力指标始终小于相应的有效应力指标;并发现非饱和黄土的有效黏聚力 与初始含水量w之间的关系能较好地拟合为指数函数。最后简要分析了初始含水量和围压对抗剪强度指标的影响。     

饱和黄土稳态强度特性的试验研究

饱和黄土的稳态强度（残余强度）是黄土边坡是否发生流滑的关键因素,为了评价饱和黄土的残余强度就需要很好地了解饱和黄土的不排水剪切性能。通过对重塑黄土的固结不排水三轴试验,研究了饱和黄土的稳态强度特性。试验研究发现饱和黄土有两种典型的不排水剪切特性：稳态特性和准稳态特性,且大多数情况下饱和黄土总表现为稳态特性,只有疏松的黄土表现出准稳态特性。根据试验结果得出了黄土的稳态线与稳态强度线,用来分析黄土边坡的流滑机理。同时证明了饱和黄土稳态线的存在性和惟一性;探讨了描述黄土稳态性质的参数内摩擦角和黏聚力的物理含义;比较了饱和黄土与砂土稳态特性的差异。     

On the stress-force-fabric equation in triaxial compressions: Some insights into the triaxial strength

The strength of granular materials during triaxial compression is investigated via a grain scale analysis in this paper. A 3D Discrete Element Method (DEM) program provides the triaxial strength data and helps to validate the micromechanical analysis. Some standard methods in statistics are employed first to quantitatively examine the assumptions made when deriving the stress-force-fabric (SFF) equation. After careful validation, a more concise format for the SFF equation is proposed for triaxial compressions. With this SFF equation, the strength is found to be jointly contributed by the magnitudes of the contact force anisotropy and fabric anisotropy. The influence of the initial void ratio, confining pressure and loading direction on the development of contact force anisotropy and fabric anisotropy is examined and presented. With similar techniques, the “force” term in the SFF equation is further decoupled, and an equation is obtained such that it explicitly links the contact force term with the friction coefficient between grains, a tensor defined as a statistic of the normal contact forces and a tensor defined as a statistic of the mobilisation status of contacts. Based on this equation, another equation regarding the stress ratio of granular assembly is obtained, and it clearly indicates two sources that contribute to the phenomenological friction nature of granular assembly. These two sources are caused by the contact force at the grain scale. The first is the anisotropy of the average normal contact forces, and the second is the mobilisation of contacts.     

Weak tensile characteristics of loess in China — An important reason for ground fissures

By means of uniaxial tensile tests, we analyzed the tensile characteristics of undisturbed and disturbed loess samples taken from the areas where ground fissures are prevalent. The study shows that the tensile strength and ultimate tensile strain of loess are very small, no more than 25 kPa and 0.5%, respectively. Water content and dry density are the two important factors for the tensile strength of loess, and show a decreasing exponential and increasing exponential relationship with the tensile strength, respectively. From the results of tensile tests on loess and the mechanism of ground fissure development in loess areas, we may draw a conclusion that the weak tensile strength, the loose structure and the collapsibility are the important contributing factors to the development of ground fissures in China's loess areas.     

基于结构性的冻结黄土力学特性试验研究

通过对重塑冻结黄土和人工结构性冻结黄土（通过对重塑黄土添加水泥获取）进行室内三轴剪切试验,研究了围压、含水量、温度、水泥含量等因素对冻结黄土力学行为的影响. 结果表明：不同试验条件下,非饱和土试样和饱和土试样的应力-应变关系呈现不同的特点. 温度和围压是影响冻土体强度的主要因素,温度越低,其破坏强度越高;非饱和土样强度随围压增大而增大,饱和土体强度受围压影响很小. 初始含水量是影响冻土体强度的另一主要因素,对非饱和土样,随着含水量的增加土体强度逐渐增高,达到某一峰值之后随含水量继续增加而减小,饱和土体强度最低. 对非饱和土样,水泥含量越高,对应的破坏强度也就越大;但对饱和土样,水泥含量对冻土的应力-应变行为及强度影响不大. 最后,提出了与所试验土体强度参数相关的综合性系数M,通过回归分析,得出了其与c和tan φ的关系,并验证了其可靠性.     

Numerical study on stress states and fabric anisotropies in soilbags using the DEM

Wrapping granular soils in geosynthetic containers, such as soilbags, results in a considerable increase in the bearing capacity due to the effective restraint on the dilatancy of the soil. This paper numerically investigates the stress states and fabric anisotropies in the wrapped soil using the discrete element method, providing a novel perspective for new insights into the reinforcement mechanisms and the development of constitutive relations for soilbags. The two most anticipated loading conditions, namely, unconfined compression and simple shear, are considered, and numerical predictions are compared to experimental results. During unconfined compression, both global and local p–q stress paths evolve linearly, having the same slope until the global failure of the wrapping geosynthetic. Under simple shear, the global stress path approaches the critical state line first and then turns to the compression line of the wrapped soil. Some local loading–unloading stress paths are observed, which may account for the high damping of soilbags during cyclic shear. The reduced fabric anisotropies of the normal and tangential force chains suggest greater confinement from the lateral sides of the geosynthetic container in either loading course. The performance and mechanisms of the soilbag earth reinforcement method, i.e., confinement and interlocking, can be better understood based on these new findings on the stress states and fabric anisotropies.     

Experimental study of the joins forsterite–diopside–leucite– and forsterite–leucite–åkermanite up to 2.3 GPa [P(H2O) = P(Total)] and variable temperatures: Its petrological significance

We conducted a series of melting experiments in the join forsterite–diopside–leucite under 0.1 and 2.3 GPa and in the join forsterite–leucite–åkermanite under 2.3 GPa to understand paragenetic relationships amongst different types of lamproitic and lamprophyric magmas with K-rich mafic and ultramafic volcanic (kamafugitic) rocks. Both the joins were studied in the presence of excess water. The experimental results of the join forsterite–diopside–leucite at 0.1 GPa show that the five-phase point of forsterite (Fo)_ss + diopside (Di)_ss + leucite (Lc)_ss + liquid (Liq) + vapour (V) (equivalent to ugandite lava) occurs at Fo₂Di₅₀Lc₄₈ at 880 ± 5 °C. Phlogopite appears as the last phase at 830 ± 15 °C. The final crystalline assemblage of forsterite_ss + diopside_ss + leucite_ss + phlogopite is similar to the phenocryst assemblage of missourite lava. Present study suggests that an olivine leucitite (ugandite) can be derived from an olivine italite, a slightly potassic peridotite and a leucitite magma.

A study of the join Fo–Di–Lc [P(H₂O) = P(Total)] at 2.3 GPa shows that liquid compositions penetrate the primary phase volumes of forsterite_ss, phlogopite_ss, kalsilitess, K-feldspar_ss and diopside_ss. It has the following three five-phase points: 1) one occurring at Fo₉Di₄₉Lc₄₂ and 1005 ± 5 °C, where liquid and vapour coexists with forsterite_ss, phlogopite_ss and diopside_ss (phlogopite-bearing madupite), 2) the second one at Fo₄Di₅₀Lc₄₆ and 990 ± 10 °C, where diopside_ss, K-feldspar_ss and phlogopite_ss coexist with liquid and vapour (pyroxene-bearing minette), and 3) the third one at Fo₃Di₂₁Lc₇₆ and 775 ± 5 °C, where phlogopite_ss, kalsilite_ss and K-feldspar_ss are in equilibrium with liquid plus vapour (kalsilite-bearing minette).

The experimental results of the join Fo–Lc–åkermanite (Ak) show that the join 40 penetrates the primary phase volumes of forsterite_ss, phlogopite_ss, kalsilite, K-feldspar_ss, diopside_ss and merwinite_ss. The data indicate the presence of four five-phase points: 1) one occurring at Fo₇Lc₄₂Ak₅₁ and 1165 ± 5 °C, where phlogopite_ss, forsterite_ss, diopside_ss coexists with liquid and vapour (olivine-bearing madupite), 2) the second one at Fo₃Lc₄₉Ak₄₈ and 1140 ± 10 °C, where a liquid is in equilibrium with phlogopite_ss, K-feldspar_ss, diopside_ss and vapour (pyroxene-bearing minette), 3) the third one at Fo₁₈Lc₂₁Ak₆₁ and 1255 ± 10 °C, where merwinite_ss, forsterite_ss and diopside_ss are in equilibrium with liquid and vapour (merwinite-bearing wherlite), and 4) the fourth one at Fo₅Lc_73.5Ak_21.5 and 770 ± 5 °C, where kalsilite_ss, phlogopite_ss and K-feldspar coexist with liquid and vapour (kalsilite-bearing minette). The present data suggest that high pressure heteromorphic equivalent of a katungite magma is represented by a kalsilite-bearing minette, a pyroxene-bearing minette, or an olivine-bearing madupite.     

陇西黄土三轴剪切过程微观变化研究

为了解黄土三轴剪切过程中的微观变化,采用PFC3D建立黄土三轴试验模型,模拟围压分别为0、50、150、300 kPa的三轴剪切试验,并与室内试验进行对比分析。分析结果表明：PFC3D能够较好地模拟出不同围压下从开始到破坏到残余变形整个过程中应力-应变的变化规律,且位移场及接触应力场的变化规律与室内三轴试验宏观现象较一致;发现弹性模量、泊松比及峰值强度与数值模型中微观参数有着密切的联系,如法向刚度kn控制试样宏观弹性模量,kn /ks值控制泊松比,摩擦系数控制峰值强度;通过体应变-轴向应变曲线发现,随着围压的增加应变能增大,试样呈现出由体积膨胀到体积减缩的变化规律。其研究结果为进一步探究黄土的应力-应变性状及抗剪强度特性提供参考。     

兰州Q4黄土各向异性的初步研究

水敏感性和结构性是黄土区别于其他类型土的主要特点,得到了广泛的研究,但大多数试验研究都采用垂直方向制备的试样,仅考虑了黄土垂直方向的力学特性,这对于以承受上部垂直荷载为主的黄土地基基础等工程类型来说是合理和准确的,而对于受力状态较为复杂的边坡和隧道及地下结构等工程类型,黄土力学性质的各向异性可能更为重要。分别从垂直向和水平向制取兰州Q4黄土的原状土试样,通过三轴剪切试验研究了其抗剪强度和变形参数在不同围压下和不同方向上的差异性,并与直剪试验获得的强度参数进行对比。结果表明：兰州Q4黄土力学性质的各向异性是较为显著的,强度方面的差异主要体现在黏聚力,而内摩擦角的差异性较小;变形特征具有随围压增加而从脆性向塑性转化的特点,垂直方向的变形模量比水平方向的变形模量平均要大2倍左右。用黄土的结构性强度及其形成机制解释了试验结果,认为黄土力学性质的各向异性特点是其结构性的另一种表现方式,应重视黄土在不同方向上强度和变形特征的差异性,以获得更安全合理的参数。     

Lithomorphic stresses and cleavage of loess

Lateral stresses existing in soil deposits are important clues to recent stress history because they tend to remain “locked in” following adjustments in the overburden load: Thus a high lateral stress is partly retained following a reduction in vertical stress, as by glacial melting or erosion. Conversely, during loess deposition a low lateral stress should be retained if the soil structure is preserved under increasing vertical stress. This has not previously been verified in the field because of the difficulty of measuring lateral stresses in situ in an hydrocollapsible material.

Tests were conducted at two sites in Missouri river valley loess using theK_o Stepped Blade, which uses data extrapolation to give stress on a zero thickness blade. In basal loess where the moisture content was at or above the liquid limit,K_o = 1.0 ± 0.02. In the upper to middle loess zoneK_o is as low as 0.2 to 0.4, lower than the values of 0.4 to 0.5 that would be expected if the soil were normally consolidated. Near the ground surface, lateral stresses are higher soK_o > 1, attributed to post-depositional weathering and the presence of smectite clay minerals. The vertical sequence of lateral stress from high to low to high again should contribute a tension-induced cleavage if lateral confinement is removed by excavation or erosion. This stress condition is most pronounced in loess close to its source, where the potential tension zone was found to extend to a depth of about 7 m compared to 4 m at the other site. Loess cleavage appears to result from stress relief and is not a unique directional property of this material.     

Solubility of silica polymorphs in electrolyte solutions, I. Activity coefficient of aqueous silica from 25° to 250°C, Pitzer''s parameterisation

Within the framework of Pitzer's specific interaction model, interaction parameters for aqueous silica in concentrated electrolyte solutions have been derived from Marshall and co-authors amorphous silica solubility measurements. The values, at 25°C, of the Pitzer interaction parameter (λ_SiO2(aq)−i) determined in this study are the following: 0.092 (i = Na⁺), 0.032 (K⁺), 0.165 (Li⁺), 0.292 (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺), −0.139 (SO₄²⁻), and −0.009 (NO₃⁻). A set of polynomial equations has been derived which can be used to calculate λ_SiO2(aq)−i for these ions at any temperature up to 250°C. A linear relationship between the aqueous silica-ion interaction parameters (λ_SiO2(aq)−i) and the surface electrostatic field (Z_i/r_e,i) of ions was obtained. This empirical equation can be used to estimate, in first approximation, λ_SiO2(aq)−i if no measurements are available. From this parameterisation, the calculated activity coefficient of aqueous silica is 2.52 at 25°C and 1.45 at 250°C in 5 m NaCl solution. At lower concentrations, e.g. 2 m NaCl, the activity coefficient of silica is 1.45 at 25°C and 1.2 at 250°C. Hence, in practice, it is necessary to take into account the activity coefficient of aqueous silica (λ_SiO2(aq)≠1) in hydrothermal solutions and basinal brines where the ionic strength exceeds 1. A comparison of measured [Marshall, W.L., Chen, C.-T.A., 1982. Amorphous silica solubilities, V. Prediction of solubility behaviour in aqueous mixed electrolyte solutions to 300°C. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 46, 289–291.] and computed amorphous silica solubility, using this parameterisation, shows a good agreement. Because the effect of individual ions on silicate and silica polymorph solubilities are additive, the present study has permitted to derive Pitzer interaction parameters that allow a precise computation of γ_SiO2(aq) in the Na---K---Ca---Mg---Cl---SO₄---HCO₃---SiO₂---H₂O system, over a large range of salt concentrations and up to temperatures of 250°C.     

初始应力条件对压实黄土动强度影响的研究

建筑物地基或土坡中的土体在受到地震或其他动荷载作用前往往处于复杂的初始应力状态,对原有的DTC－199型周期扭转荷载三轴仪进行简单的改造后,可以进行压实黄土在这种固结应力状态下动强度的试验研究。试验结果表明,在其他初始固结应力条件不变时,初始主应力方向角α0对压实黄土的动强度具有显著的影响,初始中主应力系数b0对动强度的影响较小;随着α0的增大,动强度逐渐降低,并在α0 = 90o时达到最小值,最大降幅在40 %左右;b0对压实黄土的动强度的影响具有放大效应和区间效应,b0从0增大至0.5时,动强度逐渐增大,b0从0.5增大至1时,动强度逐渐减小,增加的幅度小于降低的幅度约5 %。     

控制应力路径散体材料真三轴试验强度特征的离散元模拟与细观机制分析

通过一系列真三轴离散元数值试验,模拟了不同应力路径下的等b试验中散体材料的强度特征。根据模拟结果详细地分析了三维应力条件下中主应力和应力路径对散体材料峰值强度的影响,研究了峰值摩擦角、峰值应力比的变化规律,并根据真应力的概念和组构张量的演化结果分析了散体材料的强度成因。研究表明,在不同类型的数值试验中峰值偏应力随b参数的变化规律不同,但采用初始围压归一化后的应力-应变曲线规律一致。峰值强度线的斜率只与b值有关而与应力路径无关,且随着b值的增加,峰值应力比qf /pf逐渐减小,数值模拟结果与室内试验结果吻合较好;随着应变的发展,数值试样的组构也随之发生变化,产生了明显的应力诱发各向异性;散体的强度为颗粒摩擦及材料各向异性共同作用的结果;理论上,组构比-应力比坐标系中破坏点位置仅取决于颗粒摩擦角 ,而数值模拟结果与理论值的差异源于颗粒间咬合和滚动摩擦的影响,其影响与颗粒表面摩擦系数有关,也受空间应力状态的影响。     

不同应力路径下饱和重塑黄土的力学特性

土体的力学特性往往因应力状态和应力路径而异。为了探讨垂直加载和等剪路径下饱和土的力学特性,制备饱和重塑黄土试样,通过固结不排水（CU）和常剪应力排水剪（CSD）三轴试验,分别测定并绘制其应力-应变曲线、孔隙水压力变化曲线和应力路径曲线。试验结果表明,饱和重塑黄土在2种路径下有明显不同的变形特点:CU路径下的应力-应变曲线皆呈弱软化型,孔隙水压力先快速上升后逐渐趋于稳定;CSD路径下维持偏应力为一常量,施加孔隙水压力后的很长时间内试样变形很小,当孔隙水压力增大至试验围压的60%~75%时,试样迅速破坏。CSD路径无偏应力峰值,文中根据轴应变随平均有效应力变化曲线定义了等效峰值破坏线。通过对比发现,2种路径下饱和重塑黄土的有效峰值强度指标差异明显,而有效残余强度指标相近,表明有效残余强度指标是重塑黄土内在属性,受应力路径的影响不大。该研究结果可为实际工程选取正确的应力路径试验提供参考。     

粗粒土组构之颗粒运动研究

土的结构性是决定土的力学特性的一个最根本的因素,正是由于土的结构性的存在,连续体力学理论用于岩土材料存在明显不足,沈珠江将土体结构性的研究提到“21世纪土力学的核心问题”的高度,但由于土的结构性的复杂性,缺乏测试方法,还没有找到土结构性的定量指标。选择结构特征相对简单的粗粒土作为研究对象,探索建立其力学体系的方法和途径。粗粒土的结构性（称之为组构）主要体现在颗粒的排列特征方面,采用CT测试技术和DDA数值分析方法初步解决了粗粒土组构的量化问题,对粗粒土多种受力过程进行了CT三轴试验和数值模拟,取得了粗粒土的组构信息及其变化,为构成合理的组构量、研究粗粒土组构量与宏观力学响应之间的相互关系、探讨粗粒土的变形机理和力学特征奠定了基础,并侧重介绍粗粒土CT三轴试验成果,展示三轴试验过程中颗粒运动规律。