The use and waste of water in a third world city

All over the world, cities that are crossed by large rivers, have the great advantage of being able to meet their water needs. In the humid tropics, such cities should normally not experience water scarcity.Ilorin, the city under study is crossed by two fairly large rivers. The town is just about 100 km² in area with a population less than 500,000. 3km E of the city, is a dam with a storage capacity of 43 million m³. The daily water production to the city is 661/person. When it is realized that less than 25% of the houses in the city have modern sanitary conveniences, then 661/person per day borders on over supply. Yet there is the cry of inadequate water supply from sections of the city.The habits of the city dwellers make them waste water. For example, mouth brushing alone takes about 2.4 I/person when the tap runs continuously. Secondly a bath with a 221 bucket of water is adequate for an adult, but when a shower bath is taken, about 841 will be required for about 15 minutes.This paper has examined the use and waste of water among the physical strata in the city. These strata coincide with the socio-economic strata.For an affluent class, a threshold water requirement of 521 is manageable, whereas in the Government Reservation area, the average is 82 1 (often includes waste). For the indigenous area, about 351 per day for an individual is the need, though the demand might be much higher than this value.     

Mining and spoiled land in Zambia: An example of conflicting land use in the third world

Mining of copper and other metals to a lesser extent is the mainstay of the Zambian economy. Copper is mined in the Copperbelt situated in the northern part of the country. It is not only the the most thickly populated part of the country but also the most urbanized. Urban centers developed with the mines as their nuclei and hence pose spatial problems between the needs of a rapidly increasing population on the one hand and the requirements of the mining industry on the other. The provision of raw material for the extractive industries is a geological one. Economic history shows the realization of these potentials and thirdly, lack of planning has permitted exploitation of minerals and dumping of wastes without much regard to reclamation. Spoilation of land by mining activity is mainly caused by the methods of mining as well as by the dumping of the solid and liquid wastes from the ore crushers and concentrators; while air pollution from sulphurdioxide and dust is from the smelters. Legislation has recently being enacted to regulate the dumping of wastes and for the reclamation of waste dumps. However, this has had only a minimal effect on the problem as yet. The soil from a dump which is ready for reclamation is analysed and methods of revegetating such a dump based on ecological principles is attempted. Finally, the conflict for land between the needs of a growing urban population and the requirements of the mining industry is discussed taking Kitwe, the capital of the Copperbelt as an example.     

Evaluation of water-supply and sanitation options in third world cities: An example from Cali,Colombia

Water supply and sanitation are examined with the objective of describing the evaluation of alternative technologies for providing these services within urban areas of developing countries. First, an overview is given of the Pace of urbanization and the magnitude of the water and sanitation problem. A brief review of various water-supply and sanitation technologies follows, with a discussion of some basic principles involved in their comparison. An empirical study of the situation in Cali, Colombia is then provided as an example, with particular attention given to economic costing and some of its difficulties. The concluding part discusses the role of such analyses in urban planning and policy making, providing specific examples in the areas of low-cost housing, appropriate technology, water conservation, and urban expansion.

     

The future relevance of medical geography for health planning,health and development in the third world

Conclusions: the Future Relevance of Medical Geography in the Third World This article has deliberately ranged widely and suggested various research themes to which medical geographers interested in health and development might turn their attention. The International Geographical Union Commission on Health and Development established in 1988 suggested a research agenda which includes many of them (see IGU Commission on Health and Development, Circular Letter No. 1 published in GeoJournal 17, 4, 659–660 (1988)). The achievement of even part of such an agenda will call for close international collaboration in research amongst medical geographers and allied disciplines.Increasingly, medical geographers are gaining applied experience in health and health care in the developing world. They are obtaining breadth and depth of knowledge and are now, for example, cogniscant of financial matters such as those involved in the cost explosion in health care worlwide which has particularly sinister implications for the health of Third World countries (Josephg and Phillips 1984). They, too, are now increasingly comfortable in dealing with epidemiological and demographic data. Geographers now no longer focus solely on phenomena such as distance decay or environments for disease. They are aware that human resources, intelligence, aspirations, attitudes and finance are all potent variables influencing successful health care and health in populations.In the future, therefore, the wide-ranging ambit of medical geography will increasingly become relevant to health and health care research in the Third World. Contributions of value will emerge both from those geographers adopting more socio-political stances and those adopting a more empiricist approach. However, it is the holistic nature of geography, with its wide academic links, and the courage of geographers to research in new topics and gain sound understanding of them which will increasingly be recognized. The days of extempore contributions to political, policy and practical debates on health and development are now largely past. Well researched, solid and sound medical geography contributions will, it is hoped, forge ahead.     

矿产资源枯竭型城市的生态环境问题 --以辽宁省阜新市为例

资源和环境问题是可持续发展的核心问题。为了实现资源枯竭型城市的可持续性发展，提高资源枯竭型城市及其周围地区的环境质量，使生态环境恶化的趋势有所减缓，逐步达到资源、环境与经济、社会相互协调发展的目的，以辽宁省阜新市为例，剖析了资源枯竭型城市由于长期资源开采造成的生态环境问题，介绍了生态环境灾害的调查方法与监测手段，提出了相应的生态环境治理修复方法与策略。通过建立具有系统综合性、动态可调性和实际可操作性的生态环境综合治理恢复模式，可以实现资源开发与生态环境建设的协调发展以及固体废弃物的再利用。文章还就资源枯竭型城市的生态环境研究方向及目标提出了合理化建议。     

Combating Famine in a changing world: Famine between subsistence and market economy

I am grateful to G. Eggers, J. Gertel, E. Granner and M. Wagner for their assistance in organizing the workshop and preparing this report, and to the German Research Society (DFG) and the Ministry of Science, Baden-Württemberg, for financial assistance to the workshop.     

城市地下管线规划建设管理中存在的主要问题与对策--访中国城市规划设计研究院城市水系规划设计研究所宋兰合所长

对我们的供水管网来讲，配水管网最终布局要通过几个步骤，第一对整个城市的用水量进行预测；第二在预测增长量的基础上对于原有系统统一做一个水量的平衡；第三在此基础上进一步规划工程的规模；第四个步骤是水源论证；第五、第六是取水工程和净水下程涉及到工程技术问题；第七个步骤是输水工程，主要是源水的输送。最终我们是根据以上儿个步骤，对配水管网在城市空间上的一个整体的布局。对于污水系统，第一步要确立排水体制，现在来讲，规模以上的城市以及新建的城限是要求雨污分流的，但在一些具体的地方，可能对于雨污分流的具体的方式会有所不同。第二步是要根据我们城市的一个建设的布局和用水量估算污水。第三步是污水处理场的规划选址问题。第四步根据排水量和处理厂的布局进行污水管系统的定线。雨水系统：第一步径流设计，第二步泄水区划分，第三步对于管（渠）系统进行布置。这是管网现在规划的现状。     

Approaches to agricultural technology adoption and consequences of adoption in the third world: a critical review

There is a large body of literature spanning many disciplines on the adoption of agricultural innovations in the Third World. Each discipline has identified its own set of factors which are concerned with particular aspects of the adoption—diffusion process. However, seldom are these findings consolidated so that clear perspective exists for policy makers and development specialists. In this paper, studies from a wide cross-section of disciplines have been grouped under four areas and are critically examined. Variations in adoption are linked to a combination of on and off farm factors which vary in importance depending on the socio-economic and institutional contexts in which the farmers operate. Widespread adoption occurs when opportunities are equally available and farmers are provided with the means to take advantage of them.     

Congruence between space preferences and sociodemographic structure in Barbados,West Indies: the use of cognitive studies in third world urban planning and development

This paper reviews the implications of a research project which sought to examine the congruence existing between patterns of sociodemographic structure and change, and the spatial perceptions of residents in Barbados, West Indies. Drawing on this empirical evidence, the pressing need for the development of soundly based and environmentally appropriate urban and regional development planning systems in developing countries is stressed, especially frameworks which explicitly recognise the need to harness the initiatives and aspirations of individuals via perception studies and other methods. The implications of the work are also assessed in relation to the current debate concerning the academic role and efficacy of behavioural and perception geography.     

Risk assessment of traffic-related air pollution in a world heritage city

To support environmental risk management in a world heritage city, this paper presents high spatial-resolution maps of air pollutants for the Macao Peninsula. In particular, the risk of exposure to traffic-related nitrogen dioxide pollution for the 22 world heritage monuments in the Historic Center of Macao was assessed. The air-pollution mapping was performed by a building-based air quality model system, in which the traffic-related air pollutions at 5,965 receptor points in the Macao Peninsula were modeled and the average spatial resolution was 727 receptors/km². The results indicate that under the conditions of the evening peak hour and the north wind direction sector 0–20°, air quality in the Macao Peninsula is the worst. About 14.1% of the modeled nitrogen dioxide concentrations at the 5,965 receptor points exceed the national ambient air quality standard for scenic spot of 120 μg/m³ in China. Two world heritage monuments, i.e., the “Leal Senado” Building and the Cathedral, are exposed to excessively high nitrogen dioxide concentrations of 135.9 and 121.1 μg/m³, respectively. The results in this paper could help decision makers to develop effective strategies to protect the world cultural heritages in Macao for future human generations to appreciate and enjoy.     

The changing economic environment for spatial policies in the third world

The prospects for economic growth among the developing countries of the world over the next two decades are not as promising as the experience of the last two decades. Aspects of the current world economic environment have implications for the pattern of urban growth in developing nations, and hence for the role of spatial policies. This paper outlines the U.N. projections for the growth of urban populations in the world. It then reviews the current external economic situation of the developing countries, faced by world economic recession and high levels of international indebtedness, before considering some of the implications of this situation for urban growth.     

Re-orientation of the city plan: Strategic planning and design competition in China

Rather than being abandoned along with the demise of the centrally planned economy, city planning as a profession is flourishing in China. New hybrid plans such as strategic development plans (concept plans) have been invented, and the planning procedure has become more flexible. Design competition and planning consultancy are widespread. This paper examines the development of new strategic development plans and design competition. It is argued that city planning has been re-orientated from a technical rationale, i.e. allocating state development projects to the city, to the imperative derived from market-oriented development, i.e. consolidating competitiveness during inter-city competition. The contradiction between market and planning is that while the status of city planning has been raised and its approach is becoming more strategic, the actual functionality of city planning has become more instrumental.     

A threatened world city: the benefits of protecting London from the sea

This paper describes the options appraisal undertaken in the UK within the major TE2100 project to investigate the future of protecting London from flooding from the sea. An economic analysis, within a Benefit-Cost framework complemented by Multi-Criteria Analysis, shows that improving the existing flood defences and, in 2070, constructing a new Thames Barrier downstream from the existing one are the “front runner” options for tackling the increase in flood risk that is anticipated in the future. Both sensitivity and scenario analysis have little effect on option choice. Uncertainties inevitably remain, however, when looking so far ahead, but it is clear that continuing to protect this area from the sea is highly cost-beneficial. Also the very high standard of protection now, and the robustness of the existing flood defence assets, mean that major new interventions will not be needed for some time (i.e. until c. 2070). We therefore have time to monitor the situation, carefully plan measures to maintain and enhance the existing defences, and to seek to restrain the growth of risk in the Estuary and in London through carefully designed and implemented resilience-building flood plain management measures. Rather than having to rush to new engineering works, because we have not anticipated what is needed but are forced to respond hastily to a “crisis” situation, the adaptive approach that is now possible is a key legacy of the TE2100 project.     

Market area planning strategy: An example of interstate banking markets in the USA

Geographic restrictions exist in the USA banking industry including one which does not permit banks to establish offices outside of their home state. Given the increasing likelihood that this interstate restriction may be removed in the near future, banks need to identify attractive interstate market areas as part of their strategic planning efforts. An approach employing multivariate statistical techniques was used to help a large Southeastern USA bank holding company, the NCNB Corporation, identify attractive interstate market areas.     

以中新天津生态城为例浅谈生态城市设计理念

生态城市是人们对人和自然关系的认识不断升华的结晶,生态城市已超越传统意义上的“城市”的概念和单纯环境保护与建设的范畴,从生态城市理念和建设情况的分析中,说明生态城市建设是实现社会——经济——自然复合共生系统的全面持续发展的产物,真正目标是创造人与自然系统的整体和谐。     

Development of world production and trade up to the year 2000 — A third world view

Conclusion The implications of this prospect for trade and international transportation are clear. If developing countries are to transform their economy and build up internal capacity for continued self-sustained growth, they will be able to do this only within certain restraints. These are likely to involve a certain decrease either in absolute or relative terms of their participation in world trade and their contribution to international transportation. Such a period of lessening trade will, however, be temporary and will last only whilst the economy is being transformed. Once this phase is passed, a new basis would have been laid for engaging in mutually beneficial international trade instead of the present one-sided exercise in self-flagellation.     

The poor shall inherit the earth: Issues of environmental quality and third world development

Third World countries have been involved in the last three decades in a style of development which has not only given rise to serious economic difficulties and high foreign indebtedness but has also resulted in significant deterioration in environmental quality. This deterioration has been due to three main causes: the rapid growth of population and their concentration in large metropolitan centres; the technologies applied to agricultural and industrial production; and social inequalities, especially as these relate to consumption patterns. The various components involved in ensuring improvement in environmental quality are discussed, including an assessment of the relevance of the concept of ‘additionality’. The paper concludes on the note that real development in Third World Countries is bound to be one that is also concerned with upgrading environmental quality.     

埃达克岩研究的几个问题

在简略分析中国埃达克岩研究情况的基础上,讨论了新近在有关埃达克岩研究方面取得的主要进展,探讨了先前埃达克岩研究中很少或者没有注意到的特殊的地球动力学意义。强调O型埃达克岩的出现标志着大洋萎缩消减的开始,C型埃达克岩的出现则暗示地壳在此之前就已经加厚,同时认为要解决埃达克岩研究中存在的一些问题,在很大程度上还有赖于青藏高原的埃达克岩研究。