Simulation of the development of gypsum maze caves

The development of gypsum maze caves under artesian conditions has been simulated. The numerical model simulations show that the evolution of maze caves in this type of setting requires structural preferences such as laterally extended fissure networks in a horizon of the gypsum layer. Without any structural preferences vertical shafts rather than maze caves are predicted to develop. The most important stage for the development of horizontal caves under artesian conditions is found to be the initial karstification period. During this period the structure of the mature conduit system is established. The solutional enlargement of conduits is spatially extended, total dissolution rates are higher than the later ones.     

Subsidence hazards in different types of karst: evolutionary and speleogenetic approach

The typology of karst, based on distinguishing the successive stages of general hydrogeological evolution, between which major boundary conditions and the overall circulation pattern change considerably, gives a natural clue to classify and tie together karst breakdown settings, speleogenetic styles and breakdown development mechanisms. Subsidence hazards vary substantially between the different karst types, so that classifying individual karst according to typology can provide an integrated general assessment. This provides a useful basis for selection and realization of region- and site-specific assessment schemes and management strategies. Intrastratal karst types, subjacent karst in particular, are most potent in generating subsidence problems. Exposed karst types, especially open karst, are the least likely to pose subsidence hazard problems, despite their being recognized more obviously as karstic areas.     

Hydrochemistry and solution rates in gypsum karst: case study from the Western Ukraine

The gypsum karst in the Western Ukraine spreads through a large territory covering more than 20,000 km² and is represented by a range of stages (evolutionary types), from deep-seated through subjacent to entrenched. Correspondingly, hydrogeological settings of karst development, circulation patterns and chemical characteristics of groundwaters differ substantially between the respective areas. Based on 1,800 analyses, this paper summarises hydrochemistry of the gypsum-hosting Miocene aquifer. The majority of sampling has been performed in conjunction with a study regime of gypsum solution rates by means of standard tablets. In this study, which included 53 tablet stations representing varying conditions of water-rock interaction, 644 weight-loss measurements were made over the period 1984–1992. The highest rates are characteristic of entrenched karst although active dissolution is localised along well-defined sinking streams with short underground courses, rare vertical percolation paths and the water table. Lower but still quite substantial rates are characteristic of subjacent and deep-seated (confined) karst. However, the overall dissolution removal is greater due to higher flow through the gypsum and the larger area of rock-solvent contact. The results are generalised in order to derive the approximate solution rates characterising major situations and to be suitable for modeling purposes.     

IFSAR-DEM在岩溶洼地探测中的应用——以薄荷省旁劳市沉降灾害评估为例

岩溶研究中,通常会使用高分辨率卫星图像和地理空间数据识别、描绘岩溶发育及相关地质灾害发生的地貌特征。本文旨在利用ArcGIS10.0确定干涉合成孔径雷达数字高程模型（IFSAR-DEM）识别、量化和描述岩溶洼地。这种半自动岩溶洼地/天坑探测方法采用水流模拟法,并结合（1）流域划分;（2）下沉填充法提取洼地特征;（3）下沉深度测量及分类;（4）使用2013年至2014年谷歌高光谱卫星图像和数字地形模型对探测到的岩溶洼地进行验证。该方法已在薄荷省旁劳市进行的评估中进行了预测试。使用国家测绘资源信息局（菲律宾）1991年的1:50 000比例尺地形图进行的初步封闭洼地分析,发现旁劳岛有15个天坑。利用5米高分辨率IFSAR-DEM,共探测到820个天坑,其中424个根据详细的地面实况进行了描绘,以验证了岩溶洼地的存在。地表实况包含天坑大小、形状和深度等基本形态测量分析以消除误报数据。阈值设定为沉降深度大于1米,孔径大于10米,从而最大程度精确区分实际的天坑。这种基于GIS的工具有助于生成高分辨率岩溶塌陷易发区图,继而指导当地规划者、工程师及决策者进行开发规划和土地利用。     

Utilising seasonal variations in hydrogeochemistry and excitation-emission fluorescence to develop a conceptual groundwater flow model with implications for subsidence hazards: an example from Co. Durham, UK

Groundwaters were sampled from four research boreholes, a private supply well and a natural karst resurgence in southern County Durham, England. Time series data sets of piezometric levels, groundwater major ions, and fluorescence of dissolved organic matter (DOM) were interpreted in the light of new geological mapping to assess the movement of groundwater and its potential for the dissolution of gypsum. Three distinct groundwater facies were identified representing contact with gypsiferous strata, dolomitic limestone and Quaternary Till. Piezometric data indicated time varying transverse flow across the gypsifeorus strata, which was confirmed from gradational mixing of groundwater types and cation ratios. Fluorescence of dissolved DOM identified variations in protein and fulvic-like acid fluorescence. The former was taken to represent surface derived, short-lived material. Spatial and temporal variations in protein fluorescence offered a means to trace groundwater movement along the regional groundwater gradient and indicated rapid lateral movement of groundwater. It was concluded that gypsum dissolution is occurring beneath the town of Darlington, however, the presence of a thick deposit of Quaternary till effectively confines the small head differences of approximately 1 m, across the gypsum strata beneath the town. Further to the south, the lowering of the ground surface results in a greater upwards flow of water across the gypsum and is used to explain the presence of historic collapse sinkholes.     

Occurrence of hypogenic caves in a karst region: Examples from central Italy

The caves of the Umbria and Marche regions in central Italy are made up of three-dimensional maze systems that display different general morphologies due to the various geological and structural contexts. At the same time, the internal morphologies of the passages, galleries, and shafts present some similarity, with solutional galleries characterized by cupolas and blind pits, anastamotic passages, roof pendants, and phreatic passages situated at different levels. Some of these caves are still active, as is the case for Frassassi Gorge, Parrano Gorge, and Acquasanta Terme, with galleries that reach the phreatic zone, where there is a rising of highly mineralized water, rich in hydrosulfydric acid, and with erosion of limestone walls and the formation of gypsum. Elsewhere there are fossil caves, such as Monte Cucco and Pozzi della Piana, where large speleothems of gypsum are present 500 m or more above the regional water table. In all of these important karst systems it is possible to recognize basal input points through fracture and intergranular porosity networks at the base of the oxidizing zone in the core of the anticline, where mineralized water rises up from the Triassic evaporitic layers in small hydrogeological circuits. Different underground morphologies can derive from the presence of a water table related to an external stream or from the confined setting of the carbonate rocks, underlying low permeable sedimentary cover, where artesian conditions can occur.     

砷在石膏中固定机制:掺杂态和表面吸附沉淀态以及其在砷污染控制中的作用

石膏是矿山开采及冶炼等工业过程产生的大宗固体废弃物。工业活动产生的废液普遍有高含量的砷等有毒元素,这导致所产生的石膏也含有较高浓度的砷等有毒元素。研究砷在石膏中地球化学行为和归趋对含砷石膏的砷污染控制具有重要的理论和实际意义。然而目前对含砷石膏中不同形态的砷的定量测定和分析尚存在问题。本文在不同pH值的条件下共沉淀砷和石膏,利用电感耦合等离子体质谱(ICP-MS)、同步辐射X-射线吸收近边光谱(XANES)和电子顺磁共振(EPR)对石膏中掺杂态和表面吸附沉淀态的砷进行定量分析。ICP-MS的结果表明随着pH从2升高到12 和14,石膏中砷的含量由57×10^-6 增加到 67 470×10^-6和63 980×10^-6。同步辐射X-射线吸收近边光谱和电子顺磁共振光谱分析表明石膏样品中主要含有五价砷。在2≤pH≤7.5时,固体样品中同步辐射吸收边后的峰形状和掺杂态砷的形状类似,而在pH≥8时,其边后峰的形状发生明显的变化;粉末电子顺磁共振(EPR)定量分析表明在2≤pH≤7.5时砷在石膏中的含量和ICP-MS的分析结果一致,而在pH≥8时其含量明显小于ICP-MS的分析结果。这些结果揭示了在2≤pH≤7.5时,砷在石膏中主要以掺杂态的形式存在,而在pH≥8时大部分砷是以吸附态或表面沉淀的形式存在。五价砷在石膏中的含量和固定机制随着pH值的变化而变化,其研究对了解尾矿中石膏对砷污染的控制作用具有重要作用。此外,研究石膏中由辐射导致的g约为2.33的[AsO₃]^2-自由基电子顺磁共振特征峰,有助于补充和完善石膏的电子顺磁共振特征谱在地质测年及辐射剂量学中的应用。     

同三国道（上海段）地质灾害危险性评价与防治对策

同三国道上海段按高速公路标准建设，全长75.5km，占地近450万m     

泥石流危险度野外快速评价方法探讨

文章系统地总结和分析了当前比较常用的泥石流危险度评价的研究方法,指出现行泥石流危险度评价中评价因子的提取往往需要详细野外勘查,工作量大、费用高,不便于对众多泥石流沟的普查;并提出一种在现场踏勘基础上,基于泥石流规模、频率和承灾体特征的快速便捷的新方法——泥石流危险度野外快速评价,并结合其他方法进行了实例对比验证。结果表明：泥石流危险度野外快速评价结果可靠,可作为快速评价泥石流危险性的新方法进行推广应用。     

苏南地区地质灾害区划评价

苏南是江苏省经济发展水平较高的地区,也是全国人口密度较大、经济较发达和城镇化程度较高的地区,地质灾害是影响苏南快速发展的重要因素之一。研究采用层次分析法,尝试以重要性、危害性和易发性3个要素作为指标建立评价体系,对苏南地区进行地质灾害区域划分,并在区划基础上考虑社会经济因素对地质灾害危害程度的影响,将苏南地区划分出地面沉降重点防治区和滑坡塌陷重点防治区2个重点防治区,其他区域为一般防治区。评价结果对于苏南地区地质灾害防治工作具有较大的参考价值。     

苏南地区地质灾害区划评价

苏南是江苏省经济发展水平较高的地区,也是全国人口密度较大、经济较发达和城镇化程度较高的地区,地质灾害是影响苏南快速发展的重要因素之一。研究采用层次分析法,尝试以重要性、危害性和易发性3个要素作为指标建立评价体系,对苏南地区进行地质灾害区域划分,并在区划基础上考虑社会经济因素对地质灾害危害程度的影响,将苏南地区划分出地面沉降重点防治区和滑坡塌陷重点防治区2个重点防治区,其他区域为一般防治区。评价结果对于苏南地区地质灾害防治工作具有较大的参考价值。     

西藏公路建设中的泥石流调查与危险性评价

作者根据大量工程实例及常用方法总结了西藏公路建设中的泥石流调查、评价方法及有关地区性计算公式,对泥石流特征调查的重点主要包括形成条件、运动特征、危害及发展趋势等因素,调查范围一般应以泥石流沟谷(或冲沟)流域范围为界。在实地调查的同时,结合推理计算,方可有效地掌握泥石流的主要特征。泥石流对公路工程的危害性可通过泥石流的活动规模与易发程度定性评价。以上调查方法具有一定的普遍性,可作为今后类似地质环境条件下进行该工作的借鉴。     

上海市深基坑工程地面沉降评估理论与方法

深基坑工程是高层建筑、地铁隧道、地下空间开发利用等城市建设中的重要基础工程。随着土地节约集约化利用不断加强,基坑的深度与规模日渐提高。深基坑工程对区域地面沉降有明显影响。但针对性的地面沉降危险性评估尚属空白。根据深基坑工程地面沉降效应的理论分析与案例剖析,不同的设计施工方案对地面沉降有直接影响。含水层的疏干或降压是主要因素。地面沉降主要集中在开挖深度2倍的平面范围内,最远可达10~15倍开挖深度。地面沉降基本呈指数型衰减。现行的技术规程将2倍开挖深度范围作为基坑工程沉降监测与控制的重点。因此深基坑工程对区域地面沉降的影响评估应着重于15倍的开挖深度区间范围。提出了深基坑工程地面沉降评估的技术准则与主要技术环节的工作要点。     

Geological risk assessment of the area surrounding Altamira Cave: A proposed Natural Risk Index and Safety Factor for protection of prehistoric caves

Altamira Cave occurs in a carbonate sequence-dated as middle to upper Cenomanian, being characterized by tabular bedding. This sequence has been studied in detail and mapped in an attempt to delimit the beds in which the cave was formed. The cave forms part of a karstic complex developed in the Altamira Formation, which consists of eight stratigraphic units characterized by karstic forms and landslides as the main geomorphologic elements. The strong relationship between sinkholes and faults within the area was also revealed, with sinkholes of oval morphology aligned along the faults. Inside the cave, the subhorizontal bedding is intersected by subvertical joints, generating geometrical blocks prone to falling down. This is the main process of the present evolution of the cave in addition to the dissolution and precipitation of carbonates in local zones. We used this geological characterization as the basis for the definition of protection areas around prehistoric caves, applied in this article to the Altamira Cave. Landslides, water flow towards the cave, rock falls within cave and karstic features are the main geological risks affecting the karstic complex. Two semi-quantitative indexes were proposed, the Natural Risk Index (NRI) and Safety Factor (SF), with the main aim of determining the risk level in different zones of the study area. The information provided by geological studies as well as the results obtained using the proposed indexes allowed definition suitable protection areas around the cave.     

北方岩溶区水文地质环境地质调查进展——以北京西山岩溶区为例

该文是在地质调查项目“北方岩溶水文地质环境地质调查示范”成果基础上归纳编写的.工作区选择北京西山玉泉山泉域、黑龙关泉域和鱼谷洞泉域.调查中采用了地面调查、遥感解译、地球物理勘探、水文地质钻探、示踪试验、水均衡站观测、水化学以及δD、δ18O、C、δ34S、Sr同位素方法手段,获取了大量第一手资料,通过对包括前人资料的综合研究,取得以下主要进展:①查明了该区岩溶水文地质条件和环境问题,将工作区划分为2个含水岩组、3个岩溶水系统和5个子系统;②通过对黑龙关泉域均衡观测,获得了寒武—奥陶系和蓟县系碳酸盐岩裸露区降水入渗系数,并采用最新资料评价了天然资源量和可开采资源量;③针对突出的岩溶水环境问题(含潜在问题),从政策、技术和工程3方面提出了岩溶水保护和环境问题治理的建议.     

Sensitivity analysis of seismic hazard for Western Liguria (North Western Italy): A first attempt towards the understanding and quantification of hazard uncertainty

The use of logic trees in probabilistic seismic hazard analyses often involves a large number of branches that reflect the uncertainty in the selection of different models and in the selection of the parameter values of each model. The sensitivity analysis, as proposed by Rabinowitz and Steinberg [Rabinowitz, N., Steinberg, D.M., 1991. Seismic hazard sensitivity analysis: a multi-parameter approach. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 81, 796–817], is an efficient tool that allows the construction of logic trees focusing attention on the parameters that have greater impact on the hazard.In this paper the sensitivity analysis is performed in order to identify the parameters that have the largest influence on the Western Liguria (North Western Italy) seismic hazard. The analysis is conducted for six strategic sites following the multi-parameter approach developed by Rabinowitz and Steinberg [Rabinowitz, N., Steinberg, D.M., 1991. Seismic hazard sensitivity analysis: a multi-parameter approach. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 81, 796–817] and accounts for both mean hazard values and hazard values corresponding to different percentiles (e.g., 16%-ile and 84%-ile). The results are assessed in terms of the expected PGA with a 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years for rock conditions and account for both the contribution from specific source zones using the Cornell approach [Cornell, C.A., 1968. Engineering seismic risk analysis. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 58, 1583–1606] and the spatially smoothed seismicity [Frankel, A., 1995. Mapping seismic hazard in the Central and Eastern United States. Seismol. Res. Lett. 66, 8–21]. The influence of different procedures for calculating seismic hazard, seismic catalogues (epicentral parameters), source zone models, frequency–magnitude parameters, maximum earthquake magnitude values and attenuation relationships is considered. As a result, the sensitivity analysis allows us to identify the parameters with higher influence on the hazard. Only these parameters should be subjected to careful discussion or further research in order to reduce the uncertainty in the hazard while those with little or no effect can be excluded from subsequent logic-tree-based seismic hazard analyses.     

Seismological hazard assessment for a site in Northern Germany, an area of low seismicity

Potential sites of nuclear waste deposits in the Federal Republic of Germany are situated in areas of low seismicity. Nevertheless, seismic hazard assessment has to be performed for a very long time period in order to prove the facilities of the repositories able to withstand seismic induced loads; even though there is a considerable debate whether or not it is possible to quantify the seismic risk in such an area.

A combination of deterministic and probabilistic methods is used to assess the seismic hazard for a site in Northern Germany, fulfilling the standards of the German building code for nuclear power plants. As an example, the site of the former iron ore mine Konrad is investigated. The deterministic method is based on the assumption that the strongest earthquakes inside a tectonic region can happen everywhere there, also near the selected site. For the probabilistic method, several models describing the seismicity in an area of 200 km around the site are used to show the influence of the variability in input parameters, like the maximum intensity of each source region on the exceeding probability of the site intensity. It can be shown that the seismic hazard of a site in an area of low seismicity is mainly caused by the effects of distant but strong source regions and the background seismicity for very low probabilities.

Probabilistic evaluation has the advantage of quantifying the seismic risk. But deterministic and probabilistic methods together seem a practical tool for mutual control of the results and to overcome the weakness of each approach alone. The historical German earthquake catalog with an observation period of about 1200 years is the basis for the input data for a probabilistic model. From a deep knowledge of geological development and structural geology, the time history of the surrounding faults is developed. Indications were found that the nearest and most important fault was active at least 5 Ma ago. The combination of both seismicity and tectonics provides the basis for a long term prognostic with probabilities of exceedance in the order of 10⁻⁵ per year.

For the investigated site the following parameters were derived: site intensity as a function of exceeding probability; site acceleration; strong motion duration; site dependent response spectra for the surface and the underground inside the mine.     

Depth variation of seismic source scaling relations: implications for earthquake hazard in southeastern Australia

Advances in earthquake data acquisition and processing techniques have allowed for improved quantification of source parameters for local Australian earthquakes. Until recently, only hypocentral locations and local magnitudes (M_L) had been determined routinely, with little attention given to the inversion of additional source parameters. The present study uses these new source data (e.g. seismic moment, stress drop, source dimensions) to further extend our understanding of seismicity and the continental stress regime of the Australian landmass and its peripheral regions.

Earthquake activity within Australia is typically low, and the proportion of small to large events (i.e. the b value) is also low. It is observed that average stress drops for southeastern Australian earthquakes appear to increase with seismic moment to relatively high levels, up to approximately 10 MPa for M_L 5.0 earthquakes. This is thought to be indicative of high compressive crustal stress, coupled with strong rocks and fault asperities. Furthermore, the data indicates that shallow focus earthquakes (shallower than 6 km) appear to produce lower than average stress drops than deeper earthquakes (between 6 and 20 km) with similar moment.

Recurrence estimates were obtained for a discrete seismogenic zone in southeastern Australia. Decreasing b values with increasing focal depth for this zone indicate that larger earthquakes (with high stress drops) tend to occur deeper in the crust. This may offer an explanation for the apparent increase of stress drop with hypocentral depth. Consequently, earthquake hazard estimates that assume a uniform Gutenburg–Richter distribution with depth (i.e. constant b value) may be too conservative and therefore slightly overestimate seismic hazard for surface sites in southeastern Australia.     

Earthquake hazard assessment from the recent space and surface measurements of the Earth's gravity field

The distinctive nature of the structure of the Earth's gravity field over high seismicity areas, as observed in some limited scale studies, indicates that it is possible to use these associative patterns to outline areas of high seismicity or high earthquake hazard potential from a knowledge of the finer structure of the Earth's gravity field. The global scale investigation of such relationships as a function of the geophysical characteristics of various tectonic provinces, and the parameterisation of such relationships by hypocentral depth and earthquake intensity/energy data, become even more attractive because of the availability of (1) satellite-determined gravity models which provide global information on the long wavelength components of the gravity field, (2) satellite altimetry data which provide oceanwide information on the detailed geoidal structure, (3) surface gravity data which provide information on the short wavelength components in the areas of surface gravity coverage, and (4) bathymetric and topographic data which, though still somewhat limited in spite of their recent extensions of coverage, are available in more and more areas and provide information on the tectonic and morphological environments of an area to enable its gravity data conversion to some standard environments for direct comparisons of underlying structures. Additionally, the rapidly mounting geological and geophysical evidence of considerable intraplate tectonic activity, not so fashionable until recently, makes the study of these correlative patterns even more attractive and productive from a scientific viewpoint. This paper presents the major elements of the theoretical formulation for conducting such investigations.     

Critical parameter investigation for earthquake hazard assessment in the Sannio-Matese area of Southern Italy

Probabilistic methods have been applied for the assessment of seismic hazard in a selected region of Southern Italy (Sannio-Matese). This method is mainly suitable for engineering and planning purposes and was first introduced in 1968 by Cornell and efficiently codified into a FORTRAN computer program by McGuire. Special attention is paid in this paper to the specific input parameters, i.e. completeness of data catalogues, time variability of seismic activity, different forms of frequency distributions, and regional attenuation characteristics.