Study on the processing method of nighttime CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> eddy covariance flux data in ChinaFLUX

At present, using Eddy Covariance (EC) method to estimate the “true value” of carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystem arrests more attention. However, one issue is how to solve the uncertainty of observations (especially the nighttime CO₂ flux data) appearing in post-processing CO₂ flux data. The ratio of effective and reliable nighttime EC CO₂ flux data to all nighttime data is relatively low (commonly, less than 50%) for all the long-term and continuous observation stations in the world. Thus, the processing method of nighttime CO₂ flux data and its effect analysis on estimating CO₂ flux annual sums are very important. In this paper, the authors analyze and discuss the reasons for underestimating nighttime CO₂ flux using EC method, and introduce the general theory and method for processing nighttime CO₂ flux data. By analyzing the relationship between nighttime CO₂ flux and air fraction velocity u*, we present an alternate method, Average Values Test (AVT), to determine the thresholds of fraction velocity (u*_c) for screening the effective nighttime CO₂ flux data. Meanwhile, taking the data observed in Yucheng and Changbai Mountains stations for an example, we analyze and discuss the effects of different methods or parameters on nighttime CO₂ flux estimations. Finally, based on the data of part ChinaFLUX stations and related literatures, empirical models of nighttime respiration at different sites in ChinaFLUX are summarized.     

Study on the processing method of nighttime CO2 eddy covariance flux data in ChinaFLUX

At present, using Eddy Covariance (EC) method to estimate the “true value” of carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystem arrests more attention. However, one issue is how to solve the uncertainty of observations (especially the nighttime CO₂ flux data) appearing in post-processing CO₂ flux data. The ratio of effective and reliable nighttime EC CO₂ flux data to all nighttime data is relatively low (commonly, less than 50%) for all the long-term and continuous observation stations in the world. Thus, the processing method of nighttime CO₂ flux data and its effect analysis on estimating CO₂ flux annual sums are very important. In this paper, the authors analyze and discuss the reasons for underestimating nighttime CO₂ flux using EC method, and introduce the general theory and method for processing nighttime CO₂ flux data. By analyzing the relationship between nighttime CO₂ flux and air fraction velocity u*, we present an alternate method, Average Values Test (AVT), to determine the thresholds of fraction velocity (u*_c) for screening the effective nighttime CO₂ flux data. Meanwhile, taking the data observed in Yucheng and Changbai Mountains stations for an example, we analyze and discuss the effects of different methods or parameters on nighttime CO₂ flux estimations. Finally, based on the data of part ChinaFLUX stations and related literatures, empirical models of nighttime respiration at different sites in ChinaFLUX are summarized.

     

UU* filtering of nighttime net ecosystem CO2 exchange flux over forest canopy under strong wind in wintertime

The mechanism of the negative nighttime net CO2 flux in wintertime and reasonable treatment with it is of great importance in evaluating the carbon metabolism of boreal forest.Results, based on the data obtained with open-path eddy covariance system and CO2 profile measurement system from Nov. 2002 to Apr. 2003 and that obtained with five sonic anemometers in Nov. 1999, show that (1) the negative net ecosystem CO2 exchange flux (NEE) always appeared under conditions of strong wind; (2) the pressure fluctuation and horizontal advection flow are dominantly responsible for the negative NEE. Operable upper bound u* filtering method (UU* filtering) was introduced since the difficulties in real-time measuring of pressure fluctuation and horizontal advection fluxes under conditions of strong wind. Nighttime upper u* threshold for the broad-leaved Korean pine mixed forest of the Changbai Mountains is 0.4 ms-1 and can be applied to the daytime filtering; and (3) the UU* filtering corrected the nighttime ‘problem’ of negative NEE under strong wind and made the estimates more ecologically reasonable.     

Recent progress and future directions of ChinaFLUX

The eddy covariance technique has emerged as an important tool to directly measure carbon dioxide, water vapor and heat fluxes between the terrestrial ecosystem and the atmosphere after a long history of fundamental research and technological developments. With the realization of regional networks of flux measurements in North American, European, Asia, Brazil, Australia and Africa, a global-scale network of micrometeorological flux measurement (FLUXNET) was established in 1998. FLUXNET has made great progresses in investigating the environmental mechanisms controlling carbon and water cycles, quantifying spatial-temporal patterns of carbon budget and seeking the "missing carbon sink" in global terrestrial ecosystems in the past ten years. The global-scale flux measurement also built a platform for international communication in the fields of resource, ecology and environment sciences. With the continuous development of flux research, FLUXNET will introduce and explore new techniques to extend the application fields of flux measurement and to answer questions in the fields of bio-geography, eco-hydrology, meteorology, climate change, remote sensing and modeling with eddy covariance flux data. As an important part of FLUXNET, ChinaFLUX has made significant progresses in the past three years on the methodology and technique of eddy covariance flux measurement, on the responses of CO2 and H2O exchange between the terrestrial ecosystem and the atmosphere to environmental change, and on flux modeling development. Results showed that the major forests on the North-South Transect of Eastern China (NSTEC) were all carbon sinks during 2003 to 2005, and the alpine meadows on the Tibet Plateau were also small carbon sinks. However, the reserved natural grassland, Leymus chinensis steppe in Inner Mongolia, was a carbon source. On a regional scale, temperature and precipitation are the primary climatic factors that determined the carbon balance in major terrestrial ecosystems in China. Finally, the current research emphasis and future directions of ChinaFLUX were presented. By combining flux network and terrestrial transect, ChinaFLUX will develop integrated research with multi-scale, multi-process, multi-subject observations, placing emphasis on the mechanism and coupling relationships between water, carbon and nitrogen cycles in terrestrial ecosystems.     

Comparison of flux measurement by open-path and close-path eddy covariance systems

For flux measurement, the eddy covariance technique supplies a possibility to directly measure the exchange between vegetation and atmosphere; and there are two kinds of eddy covariance systems, open-path and close-path systems. For the system error, it may result in difference of flux measurements by two systems. Therefore, it is necessary to compare the measured results from them. ChinaFLUX covers of eight sites applied the micrometeorological method, in which Changbai Mountains (CBS) and Qianyanzhou (QYZ) carried out open-path eddy covariance (OPEC) and close-path eddy covariance (CPEC) measurements synchronously.In this paper the data sets of CBS and QYZ were employed. The delay time of close-path analyzer to the open-path analyzer was calculated; the spectra and cospectra of time-series data of OPEC and CPEC were analyzed; the open-path flux measurement was used as a standard comparison, the close-path flux measurement results were evaluated. The results show that, at two sites the delay time of CO2 density for close-path analyzer was about 7.0-8.0 s, H2O density about 8.0-9.0 s; the spectrum from the open-path, close-path and 3D sonic anemometer was consistent with the expected -2/3 slope (log-log plot), and the cospectra showed the expected slope of -4/3 in the internal subrange; the CO2 flux measured by the close-path sensor was about 84% of that of open-path measurement at QYZ, about 80% at CBS, and the latent heat flux was balanced for two systems at QYZ, 86% at CBS. From the flux difference between open-path and close-path analyzers, it could be inferred that the attenuation of turbulent fluctuations in flow through tube of CPEC affected H2O flux more significantly than CO2 flux. The gap between two systems was bigger at CBS than at QYZ; the diurnal variation in CO2 flux of two measurement systems was very consistent.     

Simulating CO_2 flux of three different ecosystems in ChinaFLUX based on artificial neural networks

The nonlinearity of the relationship between CO2 flux and other micrometeorological variables flux parameters limits the applicability of carbon flux models to accurately estimate the flux dynamics. However, the need for carbon dioxide (CO2) estimations covering larger areas and the limitations of the point eddy covariance technique to address this requirement necessitates the modeling of CO2 flux from other micrometeorological variables. Artificial neural networks (ANN) are used because of their power to fit highly nonlinear relations between input and output variables without explaining the nature of the phenomena. This paper applied a multilayer perception ANN technique with error back propagation algorithm to simulate CO2 flux on three different ecosystems (forest, grassland and cropland) in ChinaFLUX. Energy flux (net radiation, latent heat, sensible heat and soil heat flux) and temperature (air and soil) and soil moisture were used to train the ANN and predict the CO2 flux. Diurnal half-hourly fluxes data of observations from June to August in 2003 were divided into training, validating and testing. Results of the CO2 flux simulation show that the technique can successfully predict the observed values with R2 value between 0.75 and 0.866. It is also found that the soil moisture could not improve the simulative accuracy without water stress. The analysis of the contribution of input variables in ANN shows that the ANN is not a black box model, it can tell us about the controlling parameters of NEE in different ecosystems and micrometeorological environment. The results indicate the ANN is not only a reliable, efficient technique to estimate regional or global CO2 flux from point measurements and understand the spatiotemporal budget of the CO2 fluxes, but also can identify the relations between the CO2 flux and micrometeorological variables.     

Advances in carbon flux observation and research in Asia

As an important component of FLUXNET, Asia is increasingly becoming the hotspot in global carbon research for its vast territory, complex climate type and vegetation diversity. The present three regional flux observation networks in Asia (i.e. AsiaFlux, KoFlux and ChinaFLUX)have 54 flux observation sites altogether, covering tropic rainforest, evergreen broad-leaved forest, broad-leaved and coniferous mixed forest, shrubland, grassland, alpine meadow and cropland ecosystems with a latitudinal distribution from 2°N to 63°N. Long-term and continuous fluxes of carbon dioxide, water vapor and energy between the biosphere and atmosphere are mainly measured with eddy covariance technique to (1) quantify and compare the carbon, water and energy budgets across diverse ecosystems; (2) quantify the environmental and biotic controlling mechanism on ecosystem carbon, water and energy fluxes; (3) validate the soil-vegetation-atmosphere model; and (4) serve the integrated study of terrestrial ecosystem carbon and water cycle. Over the last decades, great advancements have been made in the theory and technology of flux measurement, ecosystem flux patterns, simulation and scale conversion by Asian flux community. The establishment of ChinaFLUX has greatly filled the gap of flux observation and research in Eurasia. To further promote the flux measurement and research,accelerate data sharing and improve the data quality, it is necessary to present a methodological system of flux estimation and evaluation over complex terrain and to develop the integrated research that combines the flux measurement, stable isotope measurement, remote sensing observation and GIS technique. It also requires the establishment of the Joint Committee of Asian Flux Network in the Asia-Pacific region in order to promote the cooperation and communication of ideas and data by supporting project scientists, workshops and visiting scientists.     

A preliminary study for spatial representiveness of flux observation at ChinaFLUX sites

The results of eddy covariance observation system could represent the physical process at certain area of the surface. Thus point-to-area representativeness was of primary interest in flux observation. This research presents a preliminary study for flux observation at ChinaFLUX sites by the use of observation data and Flux Source Area Model (FSAM). Results show that the footprint expands and is further away from flux tower when atmosphere becomes more stable, the observation height increases, or the surfaces become smoother. This suggests that the area represented by the flux observation becomes larger. The distances from the reference point to the maximum point S _max and the minimum point x ₁ of source weight function (D _max and D _min, respectively) can be influenced by atmosphere stability which becomes longer when atmosphere is more stable. For more rough surfaces and lower observation point D _max and D _min become shorter. This research gives the footprint at level P=90% at ChinaFLUX sites at different atmosphere stability. The preliminary results of spatial representiveness at ChinaFLUX sites were given based on the dominant wind direction and footprint response to various factors. The study also provides some theoretical basis for data quality control and evaluating data uncertainty.     

A preliminary study for spatial representiveness of flux observation at ChinaFLUX sites

The results of eddy covariance observation system could represent the physical process at certain area of the surface. Thus point-to-area representativeness was of primary interest in flux observation. This research presents a preliminary study for flux observation at ChinaFLUX sites by the use of observation data and Flux Source Area Model (FSAM). Results show that the footprint expands and is further away from flux tower when atmosphere becomes more stable, the observation height increases, or the surfaces become smoother. This suggests that the area represented by the flux observation becomes larger. The distances from the reference point to the maximum point Smax and the minimum point x1 of source weight function (Dmax and Dmin, respectively) can be influenced by atmosphere stability which becomes longer when atmosphere is more stable. For more rough surfaces and lower observation point Dmax and Dmin become shorter. This research gives the footprint at level P=90% at ChinaFLUX sites at different atmosphere stability. The preliminary results of spatial representiveness at ChinaFLUX sites were given based on the dominant wind direction and footprint response to various factors. The study also provides some theoretical basis for data quality control and evaluating data uncertainty.     

Recent progress and future directions of ChinaFLUX

The eddy covariance technique has emerged as an important tool to directly measure carbon dioxide, water vapor and heat fluxes between the terrestrial ecosystem and the atmosphere after a long history of fundamental research and technological developments. With the realization of regional networks of flux measurements in North American, European, Asia, Brazil, Australia and Africa, a global-scale network of micrometeorological flux measurement (FLUXNET) was established in 1998. FLUXNET has made great progresses in investigating the environmental mechanisms controlling carbon and water cycles, quantifying spatial-temporal patterns of carbon budget and seeking the “missing carbon sink” in global terrestrial ecosystems in the past ten years. The global-scale flux measurement also built a platform for international communication in the fields of resource, ecology and environment sciences. With the continuous development of flux research, FLUXNET will introduce and explore new techniques to extend the application fields of flux measurement and to answer questions in the fields of bio-geography, eco-hydrology, meteorology, climate change, remote sensing and modeling with eddy covariance flux data. As an important part of FLUXNET, ChinaFLUX has made significant progresses in the past three years on the methodology and technique of eddy covariance flux measurement, on the responses of CO₂ and H₂O exchange between the terrestrial ecosystem and the atmosphere to environmental change, and on flux modeling development. Results showed that the major forests on the North-South Transect of Eastern China (NSTEC) were all carbon sinks during 2003 to 2005, and the alpine meadows on the Tibet Plateau were also small carbon sinks. However, the reserved natural grassland, Leymus chinensis steppe in Inner Mongolia, was a carbon source. On a regional scale, temperature and precipitation are the primary climatic factors that determined the carbon balance in major terrestrial ecosystems in China. Finally, the current research emphasis and future directions of ChinaFLUX were presented. By combining flux network and terrestrial transect, ChinaFLUX will develop integrated research with multi-scale, multi-process, multi-subject observations, placing emphasis on the mechanism and coupling relationships between water, carbon and nitrogen cycles in terrestrial ecosystems.     

CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> flux evaluation over the evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest in Dinghushan,China

The Dinghushan flux observation site, as one of the four forest sites of ChinaFLUX, aims to acquire long-term measurements of CO₂ flux over a typical southern subtropical evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest ecosystem using the open path eddy covariance method. Based on two years of data from 2003 to 2004, the characteristics of temporal variation in CO₂ flux and its response to environmental factors in the forest ecosystem are analyzed. Provided two-dimensional coordinate rotation, WPL correction and quality control, poor energy-balance and underestimation of ecosystem respiration during nighttime implied that there could be a CO₂ leak during the nighttime at the site. Using daytime (PAR > 1.0 μmol^?1·m^?2·s^?1) flux data during windy conditions (u* > 0.2 m·s^?1), monthly ecosystem respiration (Reco) was derived through the Michaelis-Menten equation modeling the relationship between net ecosystem C0₂ exchange (NEE) and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Exponential function was employed to describe the relationship between Reco and soil temperature at 5 cm depth (Ts05), then Reco of both daytime and nighttime was calculated respectively by the function. The major results are: (i) Derived from the Michaelis-Menten equation, the apparent quantum yield (α) was 0.0027±0.0011 mgCO₂·μmol^?1 photons, and the maximum photosynthetic assimilation rate (Amax) was 1.102±0.288 mgCO₂·m^?2·s^?1. Indistinctive seasonal variation of α or Amax was consistent with weak seasonal dynamics of leaf area index (LAf) in such a lower subtropical evergreen mixed forest, (ii) Monthly accumulated Reco was estimated as 95.3±21.1 gC·m^?2mon^?1, accounting for about 68% of the gross primary product (GPP). Monthly accumulated WEE was estimated as ?43.2±29.6 gC·m^?2·mon^?1. The forest ecosystem acted as carbon sink all year round without any seasonal carbon efflux period. Annual NEE of 2003 and 2004 was estimated as ?563.0 and ?441.2 gC·m^?2·a^?1 respectively, accounting for about 32% of GPP.     

Effects of different gap filling methods and land surface energy balance closure on annual net ecosystem exchange in a semiarid area of China

Based on eddy covariance measurements over two kinds of land surfaces(a degraded grassland and a maize cropland)in a semiarid area of China in 2005 and 2008,the effects of different gap filling methods,energy balance closure and friction velocity threshold(u*)on annual net ecosystem exchange(NEE)were analyzed.Six gap filling methods,including mean diurnal variation(MDV),marginal distribution sampling(MDS),and nonlinear regressions method,were investigated by generating secondary datasets with four different artificial gap lengths(ranging in length from single half-hours to 12 consecutive days).The MDS generally showed a good overall performance especially for long gaps,with an annual sum bias error less than 5 g C m-2 yr-1.There was a large positive annual sum bias error for nonlinear regressions,indicating an overestimate on net ecosystem respiration.The offset in the annual sum NEE for four nonlinear regressions was from 8.0 to 30.8 g C m-2 yr-1.As soil water content was a limiting factor in the semiarid area,the nonlinear regressions considering both soil temperature and soil water content as controlling variables had a better performance than others.The performance of MDV was better in daytime than in nighttime,with an annual sum bias error falling between-2.6 and-13.4 g C m-2 yr-1.Overall,the accuracy of the gap filling method was dependent on the type of the land surface,gap length,and the time of day when the data gap occurred.The energy balance ratio for the two ecosystems was nearly 80%.Turbulent intensity had a large impact on energy balance ratio.Low energy balance ratio was observed under low friction velocity during the night.When there was a large fetch distance in a wind direction,a low energy balance ratio was caused by mismatch of the footprints between the available energy and turbulent fluxes.The effect of energy balance correction on CO2 flux was evaluated by assuming the imbalance caused by the underestimation of sensible heat flux and latent heat flux.The results showed an average increase of 10 g C m-2 yr-1 for annual NEE in both ecosystems with an energy balance correction.On the other hand,the u*threshold also have a large impact on annual sum NEE.Net carbon emission increased 37.5 g C m-2 yr-1 as u*threshold increased from 0.1 to 0.2 m s-1,indicating a large impact of imposing u*threshold on net ecosystem carbon exchange.     

Simulation of the Urban Heat Island Phenomenon in Mediterranean Climates

An intelligent data-driven method is used in the present study for investigating, analyzing and quantifying the urban heat island phenomenon in the major Athens region where hourly ambient air-temperature data are recorded at twenty-three stations. The heat island phenomenon has a serious impact on the energy consumption of buildings, increases smog production, while contributing to an increasing emission of pollutants from power plants, including sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides and suspended particulates. The intelligent method is an artificial neural network approach in which the urban heat island intensity at day and nighttime are estimated using as inputs several climatic parameters. Various neural network architectures are designed and trained for the output estimation, which is the daytime and nighttime urban heat island intensity at each station for a two-year time period. The results are tested with extensive sets of non-training measurements and it is found that they correspond well with the actual values. Furthermore, the influence of several input climatic parameters measured at each station, such as solar radiation, daytime and nighttime air temperature, and maximum daily air temperature, on the urban heat island intensity fluctuations is investigated and analyzed separately for the day and nighttime period. From this investigation it is shown that heat island intensity is mainly influenced by urbanization factors. A sensitivity investigation has been performed, based on neural network techniques, in order to adequately quantify the impact of the above input parameters on the urban heat island phenomenon.     

Eddy flux corrections for CO2 exchange in broad-leaved Korean pine mixed forest of Changbai Mountains

Based on analysis of mechanisms causing energy no-closure and nocturnal low fluxes issues for CO2 exchange studies by eddy covariance method, corrections were done with the raw data sets obtained from Changbai Mountains forest flux site, to evaluate the impacts of sonic anemometer tilt, frequency response limitations and advection on estimation of CO2 exchange, respectively. The results show that the planar fit coordinate transforming method is superior to the streamline coordinate transforming method in tilt correction. The latter could cause a systematical underestimation of eddy fluxes relating with the angle of sensor and terrain tilt. The underestimation of CO2 and energy fluxes for frequency response limitations average 3.0% and 2.0% during daytime, respectively, which increase by 9.0% and 5.5% during nighttime, respectively. The corrections of frequency response limitations are closely related to atmospheric stability. The advection loss of CO2 fluxes is dominated by nocturnal vertical advection, which is at least 18% when the horizontal advection is neglected. It is suggested that more work be done to understand the characteristics of horizontal advection and turbulent eddies under a complexcircumstance.     

Statistical study of anomalous nighttime maximums in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">NmF</Emphasis> 2 diurnal variations in the region of appearance of the equatorial anomaly northern crest

The occurrence probabilities of the first and second anomalous nighttime local maximums in the diurnal variations in the electron density at a maximum of the ionospheric F ₂ layer (NmF2) in the region where the crest (hump) of the equatorial anomaly originates in the northern geographic hemisphere have been studied using the data of the stations for vertical sounding of the ionosphere (Paramaribo, Dakar, Quagadougou, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Calcutta, Chongoing, Guangzhou, Taipei, Chung-Li, Okinawa, Yamagawa, Panama, and Bogota) from 1957 to 2004. It has been demonstrated that the anomalous nighttime NmF2 maximums are least frequently formed at ～53° geomagnetic longitude. The calculations have indicated that the studied probabilities are independent of solar activity. Geomagnetic activity weakly affects the rate of occurrence of the first nighttime NmF2 maximum at geomagnetic longitudes of approximately 140° to 358°. At geomagnetic longitudes of approximately 16° to 70° (i.e., in the longitudinal zone of a decreased occurrence frequency of anomalous nighttime maximums), the occurrence probability of the first anomalous nighttime NmF2 maximum under geomagnetically quiet conditions is pronouncedly lower than under geomagnetically disturbed conditions. The dependence of the occurrence probabilities of the first and second anomalous nighttime NmF2 maximums on the month number in a year has been studied.     

基于同步观测信息利用的高寒湖泊湍流通量数据插补方法

源区划分和质量过滤提高湖面涡动相关通量数据可靠性的同时,却降低了通量时间序列的连续性.为此,本文基于TensorFlow机器学习框架构建了一种超宽人工神经网络(ANN)模型.在选择输入ANN模型的特征变量信息时,我们采取了尽可能获取湍流输送过程中热力、动力学同步观测背景强迫信息的原则.通过ANN模型模拟通量的插补,本文实现了通量时间序列连续性的优化,插补后的羊卓雍错湖面通量数据的时间覆盖率从不足0.40提升至超过0.98.基于10次折叠交叉验证的ANN模型通量模拟性能检验则表明,各个检验组之间ANN模型的模拟误差波动较小,这显示出了较好的稳健性.具体地讲,感热通量、潜热通量和水汽通量原始观测平均值分别约为18.8 W/m~2、81.5 W/m~2和1.84 mmol/(s·m~2),10组交叉验证的插补感热通量、潜热通量和水汽通量平均绝对误差分别为5.4 W/m~2、15.7 W/m~2和0.35 mmol/(s·m~2).这表明本文所探索的ANN建模结构和同步观测变量筛选原则可更充分地利用观测点局地同步观测信息估算通量强度,有效地优化湍流通量数据的时间连续性,从而提升通量数据的可分析性.     

CO2 flux evaluation over the evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest in Dinghushan,China

The Dinghushan flux observation site, as one of the four forest sites of ChinaFLUX, aims to acquire long-term measurements of CO₂ flux over a typical southern subtropical evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest ecosystem using the open path eddy covariance method. Based on two years of data from 2003 to 2004, the characteristics of temporal variation in CO₂ flux and its response to environmental factors in the forest ecosystem are analyzed. Provided two-dimensional coordinate rotation, WPL correction and quality control, poor energy-balance and underestimation of ecosystem respiration during nighttime implied that there could be a CO₂ leak during the nighttime at the site. Using daytime (PAR > 1.0 μmol⁻¹·m⁻²·s⁻¹) flux data during windy conditions (u* > 0.2 m·s⁻¹), monthly ecosystem respiration (Reco) was derived through the Michaelis-Menten equation modeling the relationship between net ecosystem C0₂ exchange (NEE) and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Exponential function was employed to describe the relationship between Reco and soil temperature at 5 cm depth (Ts05), then Reco of both daytime and nighttime was calculated respectively by the function. The major results are: (i) Derived from the Michaelis-Menten equation, the apparent quantum yield (α) was 0.0027±0.0011 mgCO₂·μmol⁻¹ photons, and the maximum photosynthetic assimilation rate (Amax) was 1.102±0.288 mgCO₂·m⁻²·s⁻¹. Indistinctive seasonal variation of α or Amax was consistent with weak seasonal dynamics of leaf area index (LAf) in such a lower subtropical evergreen mixed forest, (ii) Monthly accumulated Reco was estimated as 95.3±21.1 gC·m⁻²mon⁻¹, accounting for about 68% of the gross primary product (GPP). Monthly accumulated WEE was estimated as −43.2±29.6 gC·m⁻²·mon⁻¹. The forest ecosystem acted as carbon sink all year round without any seasonal carbon efflux period. Annual NEE of 2003 and 2004 was estimated as −563.0 and −441.2 gC·m⁻²·a⁻¹ respectively, accounting for about 32% of GPP.

     

Photosynthesis-transpiration coupling model at canopy scale in terrestrial ecosystem

At the hypothesis of big leaf, an ecosystem photosynthesis-transpiration coupling cycle model was established by the scaled SMPT-SB model from single leaf to canopy, and model parameterization methods were discussed. Through simulating the canopy light distribution, canopy internal conductance to CO2 can be scaled from single leaf to canopy by integrating to canopy using the relationship between single internal conductance and photosynthetic photon flux density. Using the data observed by eddy covariance method from the Changbai Mountains site of ChinaFLUX, the application of the model at the canopy scale was examined. Under no water stress, the simulated net ecosystem photosynthesis rate fitted with the observed data very well, the slope and R2 of the line regression equation of the observed and simulated values were 0.7977 and 0.8892, respectively (n = 752), and average absolute error was 3.78 μmol CO2 m-2s-1; the slope, R2 and average absolute error of transpiration rate were 0.7314, 0.4355 and 1.60mmol H2O m-2 s-1, respectively (n = 752). The relationship between canopy photosynthesis,transpiration and external environmental conditions was discussed by treating the canopy as a whole and neglecting the comprehensive feedback mechanism within canopy, and it was noted that the precipitation course affected the transpiration rate simulation badly. Compared to the models based on eco-physiological processes, the SMPT-SB model was simple and easy to be used. And it can be used as a basic carbon and water coupling model of soil-plant-atmosphere continuum.     

Seasonal variation of CO2 flux and its environmental factors in evergreen coniferous plantation

The effects of environmental factors on carbon flux were analyzed, the spatial and temporal variation of carbon flux was studied at the two heights of 23 m and 39 m with the eddy covariance technique, and the carbon budget was evaluated for evergreen coniferous plantation in the red earth hilly area during the year 2003. The results showed that photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and soil temperature are essential factors strongly affecting the net ecosystem exchange (NEE); in the daytime, the response of NEE to PAR shows a rectangular hyperbola trend, and in the nighttime, the significant correlation was observed between soil temperature and soil respiration which was filtered using friction velocity. This ecosystem appeared as a carbon sink along the whole year of 2003, and the carbon flux showed the obvious seasonal fluctuation and diurnal variability. The seasonal peak of NEE occurred in May and June with the daily sum about 0.61-0.67 mg · CO2 · m-2 · s-1. For the severe drought in the mid-summer, the daily sum was 0.40-0.44 mg · CO2 · m-2 · s-1 in July which was only 2/3 of that in the last two months. For the lasted drought of the year, the nadir of NEE happened in the winder with the daily sum about -0.29 to -0.35 mg · CO2 · m-2 · s-1. The sink intensity of the ecosystem was about -0.553 to -0.645 kg · Cm-2 per year in 2003.     

Seasonal patterns and environmental control of ecosystem respiration in subtropical and temperate forests in China

Continuous measurement of carbon dioxide exchange using the eddy covariance (EC) technique was made at two ChinaFLUX forest sites including the young subtropical Pinus plantation (Qianyanzhou) and old temperate broad-leaved Korean pine mixed forest (Changbai Mountains) as part of the ChinaFLUX network. Seasonal patterns and environmental control of ecosystem respiration in the subtropical and temperate forests were evaluated by the often-used multiplicative model and Q10 model as a function of temperature and soil water content. The resuits suggested that ( i ) temperature was found to be a dominant factor in the ecosystem respiration, and most of the temporal variability of ecosystem respiration was explained by temperature. However, in the drought-stressed ecosystem, soil water content controlled the temporal variability of ecosystem respiration other than temperature effects, and soil water content became a dominat factor when severe drought affected the ecosystem respiration; (ii) the regression models analysis revealed that in the drier soil, ecosystem respiration was more sensitive to soil moisture than was expressed by the often-used multiplicative model. It was possible to accurately estimate the seasonal variation of ecosystem respiration based on the Q10 model; and (iii)annual ecosystem respiration derived from the often-used multiplicative model was 1209 g C m-2and 1303 g C m-2, and was consistently a little higher than the Q10 model estimates of 1197 g C m-2 and 1268 g C m-2 for Qianyanzhou and Changbai Mountains, respectively.