Vertical material flux under seasonal sea ice in the Okhotsk Sea north of Hokkaido, Japan

Downward material fluxes under seasonal sea ice were measured using a time-series sediment trap installed at an offshore site in the Okhotsk Sea north of Hokkaido, Japan, from 13 January to 23 March 2005. The maximum fluxes of lithogenic material (753 mg m⁻² day⁻¹) and organic matter (mainly detritus; 333 mg m⁻² day⁻¹) were recorded during the period in which sea ice drifted ashore and increased in extent, from 13 January to 9 February. Organic matter as fecal pellets (81–93 mg m⁻² day⁻¹) and opal as biosilica (51–67 mg m⁻² day⁻¹), representing diatom fluxes, were abundant in sediment trap samples obtained during the period of full sea ice coverage from 10 February to 9 March. Microscopic observations revealed that fecal pellets were largely diatom frustules, suggesting that zooplankton actively grazed on ice algae during the period of full sea ice coverage. During the period of retreating sea ice, from 10 to 23 March, the phytoplankton flux showed a rapid increase (from 9.5 to 22.5 × 10⁶ cells m⁻² day⁻¹), reflecting their release into the water column as the sea ice melted. Our results demonstrate that the quantity and quality of sinking biogenic and lithogenic materials vary with the seasonal extent of sea ice in mid-winter.     

Seasonal mortality rates of Oithona similis (Cyclopoida) in a large Arctic fjord

Instantaneous mortality rates of the common planktonic copepod Oithona similis were investigated for the first time in Kola Bay, a region of the Barents Sea that is influenced by freshwater discharge. The rates were estimated in different seasons (December, May, September 2005 and July 2006). A vertical life table approach (VLT) was used to assess mortality. The total abundance of O. similis (copepodites IV and V, and adults) was highest in autumn and lowest in winter. The maximum mortality of O. similis for the stage pair copepodite IV–copepodite V (0.005 ± 0.001 day^?1) occurred in December 2005, while the highest mortality rates for the pairs copepodite VM–adult male (0.453 ± 0.026 day^?1) and copepodite VF–adult female (0.228 ± 0.006 day^?1) occurred in summer 2006. Simple regression analyses showed that the total abundance of each stage and the mortality rates were positively significantly correlated with water temperature. The mortality rates for the stage pairs copepodite VM–adult male and copepodite VF–adult female were positively significantly correlated with chlorophyll a concentration. The abundance and mortality rate of O. similis in each season was determined by life cycle factors, and possibly by the dynamics of its food resources and potential predators.     

Recent heavy metal accumulation in Dongjiu and Xijiu lakes,East China

Taihu Lake has been recognized as a seriously contaminated waterbody with regard to Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn over the last two decades. The input of pollutants has increased due to economic and social development and population increase. Seventy percent of the pollutants in Taihu Lake comes from rivers, with the Yili River being a major source of pollutants. Lakes Xijiu and Dongjiu are connected to the Yili River and Taihu Lake and are sites where material is preferentially deposited because of hydrodynamic conditions. Sediment cores were collected from Xijiu Lake (core XJ-1) and Dongjiu Lake (core DJ-5) to investigate anthropogenic heavy metal contamination. Concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn gradually increased since the late 1930s, peaked in 1970, and then dropped slightly. A sudden increase in concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn occurred in 1991 and peaked again in 1996, then dropped markedly. Maximum concentration of Cd in core XJ-1 was 21.2 mg kg⁻¹ and mean concentration was 12.1 mg kg⁻¹. In core DJ-5, the maximum and mean concentrations were 6.9 and 5.4 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. Cr showed a pattern of variation different from the other heavy metals, but its concentration also dropped after peaking in 1996. Enrichment factors and anthropogenic factors revealed that human activities in the catchment played a key role in the heavy metal contamination. Increases in Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn concentration were caused by industrial development, particularly from non-ferrous metal smelting industries. The recent drop in Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations is attributed to pollution reduction measures instituted by the government. Cr was influenced by both natural and anthropogenic processes.     

Hydrogeochemistry of Groundwater and Its Suitability for Drinking and Agricultural Use in Nahavand,Western Iran

Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in Nahavand city. However, the groundwater quality at the agricultural areas has been deteriorating in recent years. Ground water quality monitoring is a tool which provides important information for water management and sustainable development of the water resources in Nahavand. Hydrochemical investigations were carried out in an agricultural area in Nahavand, western Iran, to assess chemical composition of groundwater. In this study, 64 representative groundwater samples were collected from different irrigation wells and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, major ions, and nitrate. The results of the chemical analysis of the groundwater showed that concentrations of ions vary widely and the most prevalent water type is Ca–Mg–HCO₃, followed by other water types: Ca–HCO₃, Ca–Na–HCO₃, and Na–Cl, which is in relation with their interactions with the geological formations of the basin, dissolution of feldspars and chloride and bicarbonate minerals, and anthropogenic activities. Thirty-seven percent of the water samples showed nitrate (NO₃ ⁻) concentrations above the human affected value (13 mg L⁻¹). The phosphorous (P) concentration in groundwater was between 0.11 and 0.90 mg L⁻¹, with an average value of 0.30 mg L⁻¹, with all of the samples over 0.05 mg L⁻¹. The most dominant class C2-S1 (76.5%) was found in the studied area, indicating that sodicity is very low and salinity is medium, and that these waters are suitable for irrigation in almost all soils. Agronomic practices, such as cultivation, cropping, and irrigation water management may decrease the average NO₃ ⁻ concentration in water draining from the soil zone.     

Synergic effect of salinity and light-chilling on photosystem II photochemistry of the halophyte,Sarcocornia fruticosa

Laboratory experiments were conduced to assess the synergic effect of chilling and light on photosystem II photochemistry of the halophyte, Sarcocornia fruticosa, grown at different salinity concentrations (0, 170, 340, 510 and 1030 mM). Chlorophyll fluorescence was measured after chilling (at 5 °C in darkness) and light-chilling (at 5 °C and 700 μmol m^?2 s^?1) treatments, and after 24 h of recovery (at 20 °C and 75 μmol m^?2 s^?1). At 5 °C and 700 μmol m^?2 s^?1, plants grown with 0 and 170 mM NaCl showed the lowest F_v/F_m values, whereas quantum efficiency of PSII (Φ_PSII) was higher for plants grown at 170 and 340 mM NaCl, these results being consistent after two exposures to chilling treatments. Susceptibility to photoinhibition decreases when low temperature and high light are combined with high salinity. Therefore, populations of S. fruticosa that occur in arid environments with salinities c. 340 mM could show a higher tolerance to light-chilling.     

Physical and chemical properties of soils under some piñon-juniper-oak canopies in a semi-arid ecosystem in New Mexico

Piñon (Pinus edulis)-juniper (Juniperus monosperma)-ecosystems increased substantially in the western USA during the 20th century. Sustainability of these ecosystems primarily depends on soil quality and water availability. This study was undertaken with the objective of assessing the effect of tree species on soil physical quality in a semi-arid region in the western part of Sugarite Canyon, northeast of Raton, Colfax County, NM (37°56′32″N and 104°23′00″W) USA. Three cores and three bulk soil samples were obtained from the site under the canopy of three juniper, Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) and piñon trees for 0–10 and 10–20 cm depths. These samples were analyzed for particle size distribution, soil bulk density (ρ_b), water stable aggregation (WSA), mean weight diameter (MWD) of aggregates, pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations and stocks. Sand content was greater under juniper (48%) than oak (32%), whereas clay content followed the opposite trend. The ρ_b, WSA, MWD, pH and EC were similar under juniper, piñon, oak canopies for both depths. Estimated (from Philip and Green and Ampt infiltration models) and measured water infiltration parameters did not vary among these sites and were in accord with the values for ρ_b, WSA and MWD. The SOC concentrations and stocks were greater under oak (43.1 Mg ha⁻¹ for 0–10 and 37.5 Mg ha⁻¹ for 10–20 cm depths) than piñon (23.3 Mg ha⁻¹ for 0–10 and 18.5 Mg ha⁻¹ for 10–20 cm depths). The TN concentrations were greater under oak (3.4 g kg⁻¹) than piñon (1.7 g kg⁻¹) for the 0–10 cm depth only. Accumulation of detritus material under tree canopies reduced soil compaction and crusting caused by raindrop impact and increased SOC, and TN concentrations, and water infiltration. Coefficients of variation ranged from low to moderate for most soil properties except infiltration rate at 2.5 h, which was highly variable. Overall, soil quality for each site was good and soil aggregation, water infiltration and SOC concentrations were high, and soil ρ_b was low.     

A model for inferring dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in lakewater from visible-near-infrared spectroscopy (VNIRS) measures in lake sediment

We developed an inference model to infer dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in lakewater from lake sediments using visible-near-infrared spectroscopy (VNIRS). The inference model used surface sediment samples collected from 160 Arctic Canada lakes, covering broad latitudinal (60–83°N), longitudinal (71–138°W) and environmental gradients, with a DOC range of 0.6–39.6 mg L⁻¹. The model was applied to Holocene lake sediment cores from Sweden and Canada and our inferences are compared to results from previous multiproxy paleolimnological investigations at these two sites. The inferred Swedish and Canadian DOC profiles are compared, respectively, to inferences from a Swedish-based VNIRS-total organic carbon (TOC) model and a Canadian-based diatom-inferred (Di-DOC) model from the same sediment records. The 5-component Partial Least Squares (PLS) model yields a cross-validated (CV) R_CV² R_{CV}^{2}  = 0.61 and a root mean squared error of prediction (RMSEP _CV ) = 4.4 mg L⁻¹ (11% of DOC gradient). The trends inferred for the two lakes were remarkably similar to the VNIRS-TOC and the Di-DOC inferred profiles and consistent with the other paleolimnological proxies, although absolute values differed. Differences in the calibration set gradients and lack of analogous VNIRS signatures in the modern datasets may explain this discrepancy. Our results corroborate previous geographically independent studies on the potential of using VNIRS to reconstruct past trends in lakewater DOC concentrations rapidly.     

Arsenic contamination of lake sediments in Florida: evidence of herbicide mobility from watershed soils

Organic arsenical herbicides, which include monosodium methylarsonate (MSMA), have been applied to golf courses and lawns throughout Florida, USA, since the 1950s. These products convert rapidly to inorganic forms of arsenic (As) in soils and are mobilized readily. Leachates have been known to contaminate groundwater and surface waters, although past studies have not examined whether use of these products has led to significant As accumulation in lake sediments. We used paleolimnological methods to document the depositional history and inventories of total As in sediments and porewaters of Little Lake Jackson in Florida, which is adjacent to three golf courses. Six sediment cores, four of which were ²¹⁰Pb dated, showed porewater total As concentrations as high as 435 μg l⁻¹, and dry-sediment total As concentrations as high as 148 mg kg⁻¹. Approximately 537 kg of total As is present in >19,000 metric tons of sediment (dry mass), and an additional 18 kg of As is dissolved in 10.8 × 10⁴ m³ of porewaters. Total As content in surface sediments (mean = 47.3 mg kg⁻¹) exceeds the consensus-based sedimentary concentration for probable toxicity effects in freshwater benthic fauna. Surface and subsurface waters flow to the lake from topographically higher areas to the west, where golf courses and residential areas are located. Total As concentrations were elevated highly in monitoring wells and in a stream that flows between the golf courses and lake, but As was below detection limits in wells that were located at the distal perimeter of the golf courses. Subsurface and surface waters exit the lake towards topographically lower areas to the east. Nearly all As in sediments remains bound in the solid phase, indicating that As sedimentary profiles largely reflect depositional history. Sedimentary As concentrations are correlated strongly with aluminum and iron, which suggests that As was scavenged from lake waters during the past. Sedimentary As concentrations increased until the 1980s, then declined somewhat to the present time. Dissolved As was scavenged efficiently from the water column when hypolimnetic waters were oxygenated persistently, but after eutrophication led to a seasonally anoxic hypolimnion in the 1980s, apparently less As was co-precipitated, and more was lost to hydrological outflow. Arsenic accumulation in sediments might be common in areas where As derived from organic arsenical herbicide applications is directed by shallow water tables towards adjacent lakes.     

Carbon accumulation, nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiency of Sophora davidii seedlings in response to nitrogen supply and water stress

A greenhouse experiment was conducted to explore whether additional nitrogen (N) supply could enhance carbon (C) accumulation, and phosphorus (P) use efficiency (NUE_P) of Sophora davidii seedlings under dry conditions. Two-month-old seedlings were subjected to a completely randomized design with three water (80, 40 and 20% water field capacity (FC)) and three N supply (N0: 0, Nl: 92 and Nh: 184 mg N kg⁻¹ soil) regimes. Water stress decreased C, N and P accumulation, NUE_P, N and P uptake efficiency (NUtE_N and NUtE_P) regardless of N supply. The S. davidii seedlings exhibited strong responses to N supply, but the responses were not consistent with the various N supply levels. Nl increased C, N and P accumulation, and improved NUE_P, NUtE_N and NUtE_P in the same water treatment. In contrast, Nh did few or even depress effects on C, N and P accumulation, and NUE_P, although NUtE_N and NUtE_P increased with Nh in the same water treatment. Even so, NUE_N decreased with increase of N supply in the same water treatment. The results suggested that appropriate or low N supply should be recommended for S. davidii seedling establishment in dry environment by improving C accumulation and NUE_P.     

Millet (Pennisetum typhoides) yield and selected soil attributes as influenced by some tree types of the semi-arid tropics of Sudan

Two experiments were conducted in southern Kordofan State to determine the influence of Acacia senegal L., Balanites aegyptiaca L. and Azadirachta indica L. on millet (Pennisetum typhoides) yield, soil quality and to monitor decomposition and nutrients release from tree litters. Yield under A. indica (174.83 kg ha⁻¹) and B. aegyptiaca (173.09 kg ha⁻¹) were significantly higher than the control (121.43 kg ha⁻¹). The lowest yield (111.04 kg ha⁻¹) was recorded under A. senegal. Straw dry matter under B. aegyptiaca (1161.5 kg ha⁻¹) and A. indica (857.8 kg ha⁻¹) was significantly higher than both under A. senegal (321.8 kg ha⁻¹) and the control (454.8 kg ha⁻¹). Trees varied in their capacity to induce changes in soil properties whereas effects on soil N were not substantial. A. indica had a decomposition rate (0.6283 week⁻¹) 2.0 times higher than that of B. aegyptiaca (0.2057 week⁻¹) and A. senegal (0.267 week⁻¹). The highest rate of P and K release from A. indica and B. aegyptiaca litters has resulted in significant accumulation in the soil indicating these tree litters are potential sources for these elements. The capacity of trees to improve soil fertility could offer an alternative management system for improved cultivation of field crops.     

非点源污染研究中土壤溶解性无机氮的提取方法选择

用2M KCl溶液(5:1)、饱和CaSO4溶液(5:1)、0.01M CaCl₂溶液(20:1,100:1) 和去离子水(20:1,100:1)4种提取液、6种提取方式,采用Auto-analyzerⅢColorimeter (Bran Luebbe),水杨酸-次氯酸盐法和Griess-Ilosvay法测定并对比了北京地区4种天然土样的溶解性氨氮和硝态氮的含量。研究结果表明:溶解性硝态氮的测定结果不受提取液和水土比(小于100:1)的影响,而溶解性氨氮测定结果受影响较大。在非点源污染研究中,对于土壤中可向水体迁移的溶解性无机氮含量的测定,应根据来水水源特征和研究目的选择适宜的浸提剂和水土比。     

Capacity for water conservation in invasive (Gerbillus nigeriae) and declining rodents (Taterillus pygargus and Taterillus gracilis) that exhibit climate-induced distribution changes in Senegal

Following the southward shift of rainfall isolines in the Sahel at the end of the 1960s, Gerbillus nigeriae appeared in northern Senegal in the mid-1990s, and two resident Gerbillidae (Taterillus pygargus and Taterillus gracilis) subsequently declined. We investigated the causal role of the capacity to conserve water in such climate-related shifts in the distribution of these Gerbillidae by comparing the effects of a water-poor diet on the water-efflux rate (W_−out) of freshly trapped adults pre-acclimatized to a water-rich diet. During the 12-day period of water restriction in all species, 30-50% of individuals became hyperactive and showed greater weight loss and higher W_−out than the remaining inactive individuals. Such emergence of migratory strategists within populations could accelerate the expansion of G. nigeriae. On a water-poor diet, T. gracilis showed a lower capacity to conserve water (higher W_−out) than T. pygargus and G. nigeriae, in both inactive (W_−out = 44.5 ± 1.8 vs 29.6 ± 0.8 vs 27.4 ± 0.7 ml kg^−0.82.day⁻¹, respectively) and hyperactive individuals (W_−out = 60.4 ± 1 vs 45.4 ± 0.7 vs 44 ± 0.8 ml kg^−0.82.day⁻¹, respectively). We propose that the capacity to conserve water accounted for both expansion of G. nigeriae and decline of T. gracilis, whereas competition between T. pygargus and G. nigeriae could account for the decline of T. pygargus.     

Salt tolerance of Microcoleus vaginatus Gom., a cyanobacterium isolated from desert algal crust, was enhanced by exogenous carbohydrates

Microcoleus vaginatus isolated from a desert algal crust of Shapotou was cultured in BG-11 medium containing 0.2 mol l⁻¹ NaCl or 0.2 mol l⁻¹ NaCl plus 100 mg l⁻¹ sucrose, extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) or hot water-soluble polysaccharides (HWP), respectively. Photosynthetic oxygen evolution rates, photosystem II activity (Fv/Fm) and dark respiration of NaCl-stressed cells were enhanced significantly by the added sucrose or EPS under salt stress conditions (0.2 mol l⁻¹ NaCl). Compared with cells treated with salt alone, sodium contents in cells reduced significantly; the content of cellular total carbohydrate did not change, and intracellular sucrose, water-soluble sugar increased significantly following the addition of exogenous carbohydrates. Sucrose synthase (SS) activity of NaCl-stressed cells increased following the addition of sucrose, and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) activity of NaCl-stressed cells increased following the addition of exogenous sucrose, EPS or HWP compared with cells stressed with NaCl only. The results suggested that the extruded EPS might be re-absorbed by cells of M. vaginatus as carbon source, they could increase salt tolerance of M. vaginatus through the changes of carbohydrate metabolism and the selective uptake of sodium ions.     

Plant water relations of thornscrub shrub species, north-eastern Mexico

As an approach to understand how diurnal and seasonal plant water potentials (Ψ) are related to soil water-content and evaporative demand components, the responses of six thornscrub shrubs species (Havardia pallens, Acacia rigidula, Eysenhardtia texana, Diospyros texana, Randia rhagocarpa, and Bernardia myricaefolia) of the north-eastern region of Mexico to drought stress were investigated during the course of 1 year. All study species showed the typical diurnal pattern of variation in Ψ. That is, Ψ decreased gradually from predawn (Ψ_pd) maximal values to reach minima at midday (Ψ_md) and began to recover in the late afternoon. On a diurnal basis and with adequate soil water-content (>0.20 kg kg⁻¹), diurnal Ψ values differed among shrub species and were negatively and significantly (p<0.001) correlated with air temperature (r=−0.741 to −0.883) and vapor pressure deficit (r=−0.750 to −0.817); in contrast, a positive and significant (p<0.001) relationship was found to exist with relative humidity (r=0.758–0.842). On a seasonal basis, during the wettest period (soil water-content>0.20 kg kg⁻¹), higher Ψ_pd (−0.10 MPa) and Ψ_md (−1.16 MPa) values were observed in R. rhagocarpa, whereas lower figures (−0.26 and −2.73 MPa, respectively) were detected in A. rigidula. On the other hand, during the driest period (soil water-content<0.15 kg kg⁻¹), Ψ_pd and Ψ_md values were below −7.3 MPa; i.e. when shrubs species faced severe water deficit. Soil water-content at different soil layers, monthly mean relative humidity and monthly precipitation were significantly correlated with both Ψ_pd (r=0.538–0.953; p<0.01) and Ψ_md (r=0.431–0.906; p<0.05). Average soil water-content in the 0–50 cm soil depth profile explained between 70% and 87% of the variation in Ψ_pd. Results have shown that when gravimetric soil water-content values were above 0.15 kg kg⁻¹, Ψ_pd values were high and constant; below this threshold value, Ψ declined gradually. Among all shrub species, A. rigidula appeared to be the most drought tolerant of the six species since during dry periods it tends to sustain significantly higher Ψ_pd in relation to B. myricaefolia. The remaining species showed an intermediate pattern. It is concluded that the ability of shrub species to cope with drought stress depends on the pattern of water uptake and the extent to control water loss through the transpirational flux.     

Range and livestock production in the Monte Desert,Argentina

This article reviews and analyzes the available information on range and livestock production in the Monte Desert. Cow–calf operations, goats for meat, and sheep for wool are the dominant production systems under continuous grazing. Rest-rotational grazing systems improved the efficiency of the current cow–calf production. Forage resources are primarily composed of perennial grasses and woody species. Rain-use efficiency for the total vegetation ranged from 3.9 to 4.8 kg DM ha^?1 year^?1 mm^?1. Carrying capacity showed a broad range: 18.7, 4.5–64.5, and 21.6–89.3 ha AU^?1 in the north, central, and south portions of the Monte, respectively. Mean crude protein (CP) content of grasses varied from 8.4 to 10.3 (wet season) and 7.1–3.7% DM (dry season) in the central west and Patagonia, respectively. Grasses predominated in the cattle diet, while the sheep diet was highly diverse because they ate most of the available plant species, and there was no unanimity as to the fact that goats are strictly browsers. Livestock diseases have lower prevalence indices than those recorded in other areas of the country. The high variability in carrying capacity values could be attributed to differences in rangeland condition and to the different methods used for its estimation. The CP levels in forage could meet cattle requirements provided that a proper-stocking rate were used. The most promising species for land rehabilitation are Opuntia, Atriplex spp., Eragrostis curvula and Cenchrus ciliaris. Priorities for future research should include topics such as assessment of the carrying capacity for most of the areas and nutrient content of the components of livestock diet, the livestock intake values, the economic feasibility of the use of complementary feeds and the development of seeding technology for valuable forage resources as Trichloris crinita, among others.     

Present status and variations in the Arctic energy balance

The total solar irradiance (TSI, or solar constant) acquired a new value: 1361 W m^?2 instead of 1365 W m^?2. However a long-term variation of TSI was not detected. The solar irradiance at the earth's surface is considerably smaller (170 W m^?2) than previously believed (e.g. 198 W m^?2 of IPCC AR4). The previous overestimation is due to the underestimation of the absorption of solar radiation in the atmosphere. The absorption of solar radiation in the atmosphere at about 90 W m^?2, or 25–28% of the primary solar radiation from space. The global mean atmospheric downward terrestrial radiation is much larger (345 W m^?2) than previously assumed (325 W m^?2 of IPCC AR4). The Arctic has regions of negative annual net radiation, a very rare phenomenon on the globe. These regions are the Central Arctic Ocean with its multi-year ice coverage and the accumulation area of the Greenland ice sheet. The energy balance of these regions is presented. Long-wave incoming radiation has been increasing in the Arctic at a rate of 4–5 W m^?2/Decade. The Greenland ice sheet exhibits a large vertical difference in net radiation from the ablation area to the dry snow zone in summer. It ranges from 80 W m^?2 in the ablation area to 20 W m^?2 at the equilibrium line and to 10 W m^?2 in the dry snow zone. This gradient determines the melt gradient on the ice sheet, and is mainly caused by the altitude variation in atmospheric long-wave radiation, seconded by the albedo variation. The effect of albedo in summer for various surfaces is discussed. Simulation capabilities of radiation for many GCMs are investigated.     

Seasonal variability of phytoplankton biomass and composition in the major water masses of the Indian Ocean sector of the Southern Ocean

Long-term changes in phytoplankton biomass and community composition are important in the ecosystem and biogeochemical cycle in the Southern Ocean. We aim to ultimately evaluate changes in phytoplankton assemblages in this region on a decadal scale. However, yearly continuous data are lacking, and long-term datasets often include seasonal variability. We evaluated the seasonal changes in phytoplankton abundance/composition across latitudes in the Indian Ocean sector of the Southern Ocean via multi-ship observations along the 110°E meridian from 2011 to 2013. The chlorophyll a concentration was 0.3–0.5 mg m⁻³ in the Subantarctic Zone (40–50°S) and 0.4–0.6 mg m⁻³ in the Polar Frontal Zone (50–60°S); pico-sized phytoplankton (<10 μm), mainly haptophytes, were dominant in both zones. In the Antarctic Divergence area (60–65°S), the chlorophyll a concentration was 0.6–0.8 mg m⁻³, and nano-sized phytoplankton (>10 μm), mainly diatoms, dominated. Chlorophyll a concentrations and phytoplankton community compositions were the same within a latitudinal zone at different times, except during a small but distinct spring bloom that occurred north of 45°S and south of 60°S. This small seasonal variation means that this part of the Southern Ocean is an ideal site to monitor the long-term effects of climate change.     

Physical impact of grazing by sheep on soil parameters in the Nama Karoo subshrub/grass rangeland of South Africa

The direct short-term impact of three rates of stocking (4, 8 and 16 small-stock units [SSU] ha^?1) was quantified in terms of soil characteristics of arid Nama Karoo vegetation (subshrub/grass). Mature Merino wethers grazed in the experimental plots throughout May in 1995 and 1996 (the plots were not subjected to grazing at any other time). Stocking rate proved inversely related to initial infiltration rate. Light trampling (4 SSU ha^?1) loosened the topsoil sufficiently to increase the initial infiltration rate: infiltration capacity of soil in fields stocked at 4 SSU ha^?1 and 16 SSU ha^?1 was 17% higher and 14% lower respectively than that of soil of ungrazed rangeland over the two grazing periods. Increased soil compaction and greater bulk density due to higher stocking rates significant decreased the infiltration rate. Compared to ungrazed rangeland stocking rates of 4, 8 and 16 SSU ha^?1 over the two grazing periods increased bulk density respectively by 2.73%, 6.67% and 8.945% and compaction by 10.90%, 16.78% and 20.90%. No grazing also increased bulk density and soil compaction and decreased infiltration rate. Light stocking (4 SSU ha^?1) influenced all soil parameters most favourably. From a hydrologic point of view, grazing levels and rotation schemes need to be tailored for sustainable utilization of arid subshrub/grass vegetation by livestock.     

Comparative study of nitrogenase activity in different types of biological soil crusts in the Gurbantunggut Desert,Northwestern China

Biological soil crusts cover large areas of the Gurbantunggut Desert in northwestern China where they make a significant contribution to soil stability and fertility. The aim of this study was to quantify the potential nitrogen-fixing activity (NA) of different types of biological soil crusts in the Gurbantunggut Desert. The results suggest that NA (nmol C₂H₄ m^?2 h^?1) for each type of crusts was highly variable. Seasonal variation was also important, with all three types of crusts responding in a similar way to changes in environmental conditions. From March to May, NA was relatively low for all crust types. During this season, NA was 2.26 × 10³ for cyanobacterial crust followed by lichen crust (6.54 × 10²) and moss crust (6.38 × 10²). From June to October, all crust types reached their highest level of NA, especially lichen crust and moss crust (p < 0.01). The NA of cyanobacterial crust (9.81 × 10³) was higher than that of lichen crust (9.06 × 10³) and moss crust (2.03 × 10³). From November to February, when temperatures were consistently low (<0 °C), NA was at its lowest level, especially in cyanobacterial crust (4.18 × 10²) and moss crust (5.43 × 10²) (p < 0.01). Our results indicate that species composition is critical when estimating N inputs in desert ecosystems. In addition, all three types of crusts generally responded in a similar way to environmental conditions. The presence of N fixation activity in all crusts may contribute to the maintenance of fertility in sparsely vegetated areas and provide surrounding vascular plant with fixed nitrogen.     

Biomass production, evapotranspiration and water use efficiency of arid rangelands in the Northern Cape, South Africa

Annual above-ground net primary production (ANPP), evapotranspiration (ET) and water use efficiency (WUE) of rangeland have the potential to provide an objective basis for establishing pricing for ecosystem services. To provide estimates of ANPP, we surveyed the biomass, estimated ET and prepared a water use efficiency for dwarf shrublands and arid savanna in the Riemvasmaak Rural Area, Northern Cape, South Africa. The annual production fraction was surveyed in 33 MODIS 1 km² pixels and the results regressed against the MODIS f_PAR product. This regression model was used to predict the standing green biomass (kg DM ha⁻¹) for 2009 (dry year). Using an approach which combines potential evapotranspiration (ET₀) and the MODIS f_PAR product, we estimated actual evapotranspiration (ET_a). These two models (greening standing biomass and ET_a) were used to calculate the annual WUE for 2009. WUE was 1.6 kg DM mm⁻¹ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. This value may be used to provide an estimate of ANPP in the absence of direct measurements of biomass and to provide a comparison of the water use efficiency of this rangeland with other rangeland types.