Environmental problems at the Nevşehir (Kozakli) geothermal field,central Turkey

The Kozakli–Nev?ehir geothermal field extends a long a NW–SE direction at SE of the Centrum of Kozakli. The area is not rugged and average elevation is 1,000 m. The Kozanözü Creek flows towards north of the area. In the Kozakli thermal Spa area, thermal waters are manifested along a valley with a length of 1.5 km and 200 m width. In this resort some hot waters are discharged with no use. The thermal water used in the area comes from wells drilled by MTA. In addition, these waters from wells are also utilized by hotels, baths and motels belonging to City Private Management, Municipality and private sector. The measured temperature of Kozakli waters ranges from 43–51°C in springs and 80–96°C in wells. Waters are issued in a wide swampy area as a small group of springs through buried faults. Electrical conductivity values of thermal spring and well waters are 1,650–3,595 μS/cm and pH values are 6.72–7.36. Kozakli cold water has an electrical conductivity value of 450 μS/cm and pH of 7.56. All thermal waters are dominated by Na⁺ and Cl–SO₄ while cold waters are dominated by Ca⁺² and HCO₃ ^?. The aim of this study was to investigate the environmental problems around the Kozakli geothermal field and explain the mechanisms of karstic depression which was formed by uncontrolled use of thermal waters in this area and bring up its possible environmental threats. At the Kozakli geothermal field a sinkhole with 30 m diameter and 15 m depth occurred in January, 17th 2007 at the recreation area located 20 m west of the geothermal well which belongs to the government of Nev?ehir province. The management of the geothermal wells should be controlled by a single official institution in order to avoid the creation of such karstic structures affecting the environment at the source area.     

Geothermometry applications for the Balıkesir thermal waters,Turkey

In this study, reservoir temperatures of Balıkesir geothermal waters in northwestern Turkey are estimated with various geochemical models. The geothermal fluids in the region are represented by Na–SO₄, Na–HCO₃ and Ca–HCO₃ type waters with discharge temperatures up to 98°C. It was determined that the solubility of silica in most of the waters is controlled by the chalcedony phase. Equilibrium states of the Balıkesir thermal waters studied by means of Na–K–Mg–Ca diagram, mineral saturation calculations and activity diagrams in the system composed of Na₂O–CaO–K₂O–Al₂O₃–SiO₂–H₂O phases approximate a reservoir temperature of about 120°C. Most of the waters are found to be equilibrated with calcite, chalcedony ± quartz and muscovite at predicted temperature ranges, similar to those calculated from the chemical geothermometers.     

Hydrogeochemical investigation of Küçük Menderes River coastal wetland,Selçuk–Izmir,Turkey

Küçük Menderes River forms a rich coastal wetland inside in the Selçuk plain. Three saline/brackish lakes, one swamp and Küçük Menderes River are these wetlands’ components. Alkaline-slightly alkaline type lakes are recharged from precipitation and karstic springs that discharge from marble-schist and marble-alluvium contacts in the northern and southern parts of the study area. Water types of the wetland are Na–Cl and Na–Ca–Mg–HCO₃–Cl in both rainy and dry seasons. Both seawater intrusion and evaporation, as being the sources of the ions, justify the presence of Na–Cl, Na–SO₄ and Cl–SO₄, in the wetland water. Environmental isotopes were used to identify the relationship between wetland and groundwater in the Selçuk plain. The δ¹⁸O and δD composition of wetland area samples have changed between ?6.42 to ?4.56‰, and ?36.40 to ?23.80‰, respectively. The lakes and rivers are plotted on the mixing line by slope of 5.2 and these data indicate that wetland is affected from seawater intrusion. The recharge area that was sampled in order to compare the wetland has Ca–HCO₃ water type with a neutral-slightly alkaline pH values and the main hydrogeochemical process is weathering the different types of silicates. Iron, manganese and selenium are the dominant minor ions due to the high biological activities and organic matters in the lakes. There are two contamination risks for this wetland: (1) waste disposal site and (2) water treatment plant where the purified waters are released into the river. EC, Al, As, Cd, Cu, Fe and Zn values exceed those of aquatic life standards. In the near future these sites will pose a danger for wetland wild life and surrounding irrigation water suppliers.     

Numerical investigations of fault-induced seawater circulation in the Seferihisar-Bal?ova Geothermal system, western Turkey

The Seferihisar-Bal?ova Geothermal system (SBG), Turkey, is characterized by temperature and hydrochemical anomalies along the faults: thermal waters in northern Bal?ova are heated meteoric freshwater, whereas the hot springs of the southern Seferihisar region have a strong seawater contribution. Previous numerical simulations of fluid flow and heat transport indicated that focused upsurge of hot water in faults induces a convective-like flow motion in surrounding units. Salt transport is fully coupled to thermally driven flow to study whether fault-induced convection cells could be responsible for seawater encroachment in the SBG. Isotope data are presented to support the numerical findings. The results show that fault-induced convection cells generate seawater plumes that extend from the seafloor toward the faults. At fault intersections, seawater mixes with rising hot thermal waters. The resulting saline fluids ascend to the surface along the fault, driven by buoyant forces. In Bal?ova, thick alluvium, minor faults and regional flow prevent ascending salty water from spreading at the surface, whereas the weak recharge flow in the thin alluvium of the southern SBG is not sufficient to flush the ascending hot salty waters. These mechanisms could develop in any faulted geothermal system, with implications for minerals and energy migration in sedimentary basins.     

Helium–carbon relationships in geothermal fluids of western Anatolia,Turkey

We investigate the helium, carbon and oxygen–hydrogen isotopic systematics and CO₂/³He ratios of 8 water and 6 gas samples collected from 12 geothermal fields in western Anatolia (Turkey). ³He/⁴He ratios of the samples (R) normalized to the atmospheric ³He/⁴He ratio (R_A = 1.39 × 10^? 6) range from 0.27 to 1.67 and are significantly higher than the crustal production value of 0.05. Fluids with relatively high R / R_A values are generally found in areas of significant heat potential (K?z?ldere and Tuzla fields). CO₂/³He ratios of the samples, ranging from 1.6 × 10⁹ to 2.3 × 10¹⁴, display significant variation and are mostly higher than values typical of an upper mantle source (2 × 10⁹). The δ¹³C (CO₂) and δ¹³C (CH₄) values of all fluids vary from ? 8.04 to + 0.35‰ and ? 25.80 to ? 23.92‰ (vs. PDB), respectively. Stable isotope values (δ¹⁸O–δD) of the geothermal waters are conformable with the Mediterranean Meteoric Water Line and indicate a meteoric origin. The temperatures calculated by gas geothermometry are significantly higher than estimates from chemical geothermometers, implying that either equilibrium has not been attained for the isotope exchange reaction or that isotopic equilibration was disturbed due to gas additions en route to the surface.Evaluation of He–CO₂ abundances indicates that hydrothermal degassing and calcite precipitation (controlled probably by adiabatic cooling due to degassing) significantly fractionate the elemental ratio (CO₂/³He) in geothermal waters. Such processes do not affect gas phase samples to anywhere near the same extent. For the gas samples, mixing between mantle and various crustal sources appears to be the main control on the observed He–C systematics: however, crustal inputs dominate the CO₂ inventory. Considering that limestone is the main source of carbon (～ 70 to 97% of the total carbon inventory), the carbon flux from the crust is found to be at least 20 times that from the mantle. As to the He-inventory, the mantle-derived component is found to vary up to 21% of the total He content and is probably transferred to the crust by fluids degassed from deep mantle melts generated in association with the elevated geotherm and adiabatic melting accompanying current extension. The range of ³He/enthalpy ratios (0.000032 to 0.19 × 10^? 12 cm³ STP/J) of fluids in western Anatolia is consistent with the release of both helium and heat from contemporary additions of mantle-derived magmas to the crust. The deep faults appear to have facilitated the deep circulation of the fluids and the transport of mantle volatiles and heat to the surface.     

Estimation of environmental impacts on the water quality of the Tahtalıdam watershed in İzmir, Turkey

Water pollution is a widespread problem in different areas of the world. Some of these problems originated from point contamination sources and widespread contaminant outlet sources which are observed in every country. The major elements and chemical loads of surface water have been dominated by constituents derived directly or indirectly from human activities and/or industrial practices that have increased additives in the last several decades. The point sources of contamination may result from the direct wastewater discharges to the dam sites, which are considered to be the most commonly encountered water pollution problems. One of these problems is the eutrophication process which usually occurs in the static water mass of lakes and other surface water reservoirs. This process may be caused by the continuous increase of nitrogen and phosphorus contents and decrease of O₂ level in water causing an anaerobic condition which may stimulate algae-growth flow in these water bodies, consequently reducing the quality of water. Of course, there are many research methods for determining the various kinds of water pollution. In this research, the hydrochemical parameters were evaluated to estimate the types of pollution sources, the level of pollution, and its environmental impacts on the Tahtal dam reservoir.     

Post-Collisional Miocene Alkaline Volcanism in the Oglakçi Region,Turkey: Petrology and Geochemistry

Miocene volcanism of the Oglakci region (Sivrihisar, Eskisehir) in northwestern Central Anatolia, Turkey, is represented by basaltic and trachytic groups of rocks. Samples of both groups have been investigated using mineral-chemical data together with whole-rock major-, trace-element, and radiogenic Sr-Nd isotopic data. The basaltic volcanic rocks consist of mugearites and shoshonites, whereas the trachytic rocks include trachytes, latite, and rhyolite. Both groups are of alkaline character. The basaltic rocks contain plagioclase (An_29-63), alkali feldspar (Or_12-74), olivine, orthopyroxene (En_64-67), clinopyroxene (Wo_43-48), biotite (Mg#_82-88), and Fe-Ti oxide phenocrysts, whereas the trachytic rocks contain plagioclase (An_21-64), alkali feldspar (Or_10-53), clinopyroxene (Wo_41-49), amphibole (Mg#_64-83), biotite (Mg#_79-85), Fe-Ti oxide, titanite, apatite, and quartz phenocrysts. The measured ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of basaltic samples range from 0.7045 to 0.7048, and those of trachytic samples from 0.7054 to 0.7056. The basaltic samples have ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios ranging from 0.512753 to 0.512737, and those of trachytic samples are 0.512713 to 0.512674. Isotopic, major-, and trace-element data suggest that the Oglakci volcanic rocks are products of postcollisional magmatism and originated from a complex interplay of crustal assimilation, magma mixing, and fractional crystallization processes following the demise of Neotethys. Trace-element characters also are consistent with an OIB-like mantle source. These volcanic rocks probably were associated with extensional tectonics, which occurred within the Anatolian plate as a result of collision of the Eurasian and Afro-Arabian plates during the neotectonic evolution of Turkey.     

Hydrochemistry and environmental isotope study of the geothermal water around Beypazarı granitoids,Ankara, Turkey

Hydrochemical analysis results suggest four different water types: bicarbonate dominant water (facies-I), sulfate dominant cold brine water (facies-II), sodium-bicarbonate dominant thermal water and thermal and mineralized water (facies-III), and sulfate–chloride dominant thermal and mineralized water (facies-IV). The mineral content/salinity of the water is related to the ions that these waters dissolve from the minerals on the rocks during infiltration and circulation in the saturated zone. Gypsum cover units that exist on the granitoids in the region is the main factor for the ion increase in the facies III geothermal water similar to the cold brine water (facies II). Isotopic analyses indicate that the thermal springs (Dutlu bath spring, Aya? bath well, Çoban bath well and Kapullu bath spring) are of meteoric origin and receive recharge from precipitation in the Beypazar? granitoids and around gypseous formations with elevations of about 950–1,150 m. Karakaya bath well and Il?ca bath spring thermal water points are recharged from the Bilecik limestone hills, Tekke volcanics and ?ncedoruk Formations. Karakoca mineral spring of thermal and mineralized water is recharged from out of the study area. According to oxygen-18 (SO₄^2?) and sulfur-34 (SO₄^2?) contents, sulfate in water samples from Aya? and Dutlu resorts as well as Çoban bath is derived from the gypsum of Kirmir Formation as the primary source. Sulfates of the Kapullu bath water and Karakoca mineral water originate from secondary sources such as pyrite oxidation and bacteriological reduction.     

Landslide susceptibility assessment in the İzmir (West Anatolia,Turkey) city center and its near vicinity by the logistic regression method

A landslide susceptibility assessment for İzmir city (Western Turkey), which is the third biggest city of Turkey, was performed by a logistic regression method. A database of landslide characteristics was prepared using detailed field surveys. The major landslides in the study area are generally observed in the field, dominated by weathered volcanics, and 39.63% of the total landslide area is in this unit. The parameters of lithology, slope gradient, slope aspect, distance to drainage, distance to roads and distance to fault lines were used as variables in the logistic regression analysis. The effect of each parameter on landslide occurrence was assessed from the corresponding coefficients that appear in the logistic regression function. On the basis of the obtained coefficients, lithology plays the most important role in determining landslide occurrence and distribution. Slope gradient has a more significant effect than the other geomorphological parameters, such as slope aspect and distance to drainage. Using a predicted map of probability, the study area was classified into five categories of landslide susceptibility: very low, low, moderate, high and very high. Whereas 49.65% of the total study area has very low susceptibility, very high susceptibility zones make up 11.69% of the area.     

Hydrogeochemical study of the thermal and mineralized waters of the Banaz (Hamamboğazi) area,western Anatolia,Turkey

The Hamamboğazi spa in western Turkey was built around natural hot springs with discharge temperatures in the range of 30–54°C; the waters have near neutral pH values of 6.50–7.10 and a TDS content between 2,694 and 2,982 mg/l. Thermal water with a temperature of 47.5–73°C has been produced at 325 l/s from five wells since 1994, causing some springs to go dry. A management plan is required in the study area to maximize the benefits of this resource, for which currently proposed direct uses include heating in the district and greenhouses, as well as balneology in new spas in the area. The best use for the water from each spring or well will depend on its temperature, chemistry and location. The thermal waters are mixed Na–Mg–HCO₃–SO₄ fluids that contain a significant amount of CO₂ gas. The chemical geothermometers applied to the Hamamboğazi thermal waters yield a maximum reservoir temperature of 130°C. Isotope results (¹⁸O, ²H, ³H) indicate that the thermal waters have a meteoric origin: rainwater percolates downward along fractures and faults, is heated at depth, and then rises to the surface along fractures and faults that act as a hydrothermal conduit. The basement around the Banaz Hamamboğazi resort is comprised of Paleozoic metamorphic schist and marbles exposed 8 km south and 15 km north of Banaz. Mesozoic marble, limestone and ophiolitic complex are observed a few km west and in the northern part of Banaz. These units were cut at a depth of 350–480 m in boreholes drilled in the area. Overlying lacustrine deposits are composed of fine clastic units that alternate with gypsum, tuff and tuffites of 200–350 m thickness. The marble and limestones form the thermal water aquifer, while lacustrine deposits form the impermeable cap.     

Metamorphic consequences of Neogene thermal anomaly in the northern Apennines (Radicondoli-Travale area,Larderello geothermal field – Italy)

In the Radicondoli–Travale area of the Larderello geothermal field (Italy) new structural and petrologic data on some metamorphic units, cored from geothermal wells, reveal the existence of a wide complex of hornfels rocks. The development of the complex is related to the emplacement of Neogene magmatic rocks at a shallow depth within a Permo–Triassic terrigenous metasedimentary sequence of a low metamorphic grade. The sequence was subjected to alpine tectonic-metamorphic events. This reconstruction gives new insights in the tectonic setting of metamorphic units below the Tuscan Nappe, in southern Tuscany. Particularly, the medium and high grade metamorphic rocks seem strictly related to the development of Neogene thermal aureoles and do not represent remnants of a Paleozoic basement. Furthermore, in this sector of the Larderello geothermal system, the presence of deep geothermal reservoir at a depth of 3 000 m is mainly linked to the enhanced permeability caused by fracturing in these hornfels rocks. This fracturing is a consequence of the dehydration reaction occurring in the metapelites due to Neogene thermal metamorphism. This mechanism allowed the development of a long-lived hydrothermal system, shown by the secondary mineralogical assemblages. These testify the presence of at least two hydrothermal stages which are well preserved in the less permeable units.     

Spatial Variability of Cr2O3% in the Kizilyüksek-Yataardiç Chromite Deposit,Adana, Turkey

Knowledge of the spatial variability of grade is important for commercial evaluation of mineral deposits. The low-grade, Kizilyuksek-Yataardic chromite deposit in Karsanti, Adana is one of the greatest reserves in western Anatolia, Turkey and offers great potential. However this deposit lacks geologic information needed to provide a better understanding of the spatial variability of Cr₂O₃%. In this paper, geostatistical tools are used to improve the understanding of the vertical variability of Cr₂O₃%. The vertical variability is characterized by an average down-hole variogram from core measurements. The variogram exhibits nested structures at 10, 50, and 100 m. Because geologic information is not adequate to explain the source of these features, geostatistical simulation of Cr₂O₃% with depth is used. The results indicate that the chromite mineralization is characterized by zonal structure, with average size of the zones being 50 m, and average distance between them being 100 m. A study of the most variable holes also shows that these holes have the greatest effect on the average down-hole variogram.     

The origin of reservoir fluids in the geothermal field of Los Azufres,Mexico — isotopical and hydrological indications

The calculation of hydrological balance resulted in a potential, average annual infiltration rate of 446±206 mm/m² for the Los Azufres geothermal area, which corresponds to a total of 82×10⁶ m³ per a. Due to the highly fractured and faulted structure of the volcanic formations, a considerable potential for the infiltration of recent meteoric water into deeper sections of the volcanic formations can be assumed. Isotopic data indicate the minor importance of recent meteoric water for the recharge of the geothermal reservoir. Very negative δ¹³C values can be explained by the input of organic C from the surface, but the lack of ¹⁴C in the deep fluids reflects a pre-historic age for the infiltration event of fossil meteoric water. The dilution of the meteoric water by ¹⁴C-free CO₂ gas from a shallow magma chamber complicates the exact age determination of the infiltration event, which probably occurred during the Late Pleistocene or Early Holocene glacial period. Strong water–rock interaction processes, such as sericitization/chloritization, caused the primary brine composition to be camouflaged. A preliminary hydrological model of the reservoir can be postulated as follows: the fossil hydrodynamic system was characterized by the infiltration of meteoric water and mixing with andesitic and/or magmatic water. Strong water–rock interaction processes in the main part of the production zone prove the existence of former active fluid circulation systems. Due to changes in pressure and temperature, the rising fluids get separated into liquid and vapour phases at a depth of 1500 m. After cooling, the main portions of both phases remain within the convective reservoir cycle. Isotope analyses of hot spring waters indicate the direct communication of the reservoir with the surface at some local outcrops. A recent reactivation of the hydrodynamic system is caused by the geothermal production, as indicated by the detection of lateral communication between some production and reinjection wells.     

Metamorphic consequences of Neogene thermal anomaly in the northern Apennines (Radicondoli-Travale area,Larderello geothermal field – Italy)

Abstract

In the Radicondoli–Travale area of the Larderello geothermal field (Italy) new structural and petrologic data on some metamorphic units, cored from geothermal wells, reveal the existence of a wide complex of hornfels rocks. The development of the complex is related to the emplacement of Neogene magmatic rocks at a shallow depth within a Permo–Triassic terrigenous metasedimentary sequence of a low metamorphic grade. The sequence was subjected to alpine tectonic-metamorphic events. This reconstruction gives new insights in the tectonic setting of metamorphic units below the Tuscan Nappe, in southern Tuscany. Particularly, the medium and high grade metamorphic rocks seem strictly related to the development of Neogene thermal aureoles and do not represent remnants of a Paleozoic basement. Furthermore, in this sector of the Larderello geothermal system, the presence of deep geothermal reservoir at a depth of 3 000 m is mainly linked to the enhanced permeability caused by fracturing in these hornfels rocks. This fracturing is a consequence of the dehydration reaction occurring in the metapelites due to Neogene thermal metamorphism. This mechanism allowed the development of a long-lived hydrothermal system, shown by the secondary mineralogical assemblages. These testify the presence of at least two hydrothermal stages which are well preserved in the less permeable units. © 2000 Editions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS     

Landscape–biogeochemical factors of transformation of the Cs-137 contamination field in the Bryansk region

Data are presented on the distribution of Chernobyl-derived ^137Cs in different landscapes of the Bryansk region. The role of different landscape-biogeochemical factors in the transformation of the ^137Cs contamination field is examined. The distribution of ^137Cs in the typical soil catenary junction of predpolessie, predopolje, and opolje landscapes is analyzed. The role of biogeochemical barriers in the ^137Cs accumulation is considered. It is revealed that the slope exposure affects the intensity of geochemical migration. In particular, the intensity of lateral migration of ^137Cs on the slopes of the southern and southwestern exposure is much higher than that on the slopes of the northern and northeastern exposure. The different types of geochemical lateral structure of landscape are analyzed on the basis of the catenary ^137Cs distribution.     

Mixing of geothermal and non-geothermal fluids in shallow aquifers in the Germencik-Nazilli area,Büyük Menderes Basin (SW Turkey)

This study observes groundwater hydrochemical characteristics during mixing between geothermal and non-geothermal fluids in Germencik–Nazilli area in the Büyük Menderes Basin (SW Turkey). Hydrogeochemical features of 32 non-geothermal, geothermal and surface samples were studied. The mean temperatures of the geothermal reservoirs are calculated to be 150–240 °C in Germencik field, based on Na-K-Mg geothermometry. Hydrochemical characteristics of Germencik geothermal fluid differ from non-geothermal fluids, mainly Na-Cl-HCO₃-type geothermal fluid, while non-geothermal fluid is mostly Ca-Mg-HCO₃-SO₄ type. High contents of some minor elements in geothermal fluids are most likely sourced from prolonged water-rock interaction, reflecting the signals of flow paths and residence times. A mass-balance approach was used to calculate mixing ratios between geothermal and non-geothermal fluids based on B, Cl and Na concentrations. Germencik field is considerably characterised by rising geothermal fluids and overlying non-geothermal fluids. The amount of water stored in the Quaternary aquifer evolved from a deep thermal source is low in Germencik (.5–40% geothermal fluid in non-geothermal wells). Mixing between geothermal and non-geothermal fluids has been caused by groundwater utilisation practices and is increased close to active faults. Irrigation of the shallow groundwater composition is considered as influx of low-temperature geothermal fluid.