Erosion of bentonite particles at the interface of a compacted bentonite and a fractured granite

Compacted bentonite has been considered as a candidate buffer material in the underground repository for the disposal of high-level radioactive waste. An erosion of bentonite particles caused by a groundwater flow at the interface of a compacted bentonite and a fractured granite was studied experimentally under various geochemical conditions. The experimental results showed that bentonite particles could be eroded from a compacted bentonite buffer by a flowing groundwater depending upon the contact time, the flow rate of the groundwater, and the geochemical parameters of the groundwater such as the pH and ionic strength.

A gel formation of the bentonite was observed to be a dominant process in the erosion of bentonite particles although an intrusion of bentonite into a rock fracture also contributed to the erosion. The concentration of the eroded bentonite particles eroded by a flowing groundwater was increased with an increasing flow rate of the groundwater. It was observed from the experiments that the erosion of the bentonite particles was considerably affected by the ionic strength of a groundwater although the effect of the pH was not great within the studied pH range from 7 to 10. An erosion of the bentonite particles in a natural groundwater was also observed to be considerable and the eroded bentonite particles are expected to be stable at the given groundwater condition.

The erosion of the bentonite particles by a flowing groundwater did not significantly reduce the physical stability and thus the performance of a compacted bentonite buffer. However, it is expected that an erosion of the bentonite particles due to a groundwater flow will generate bentonite particles in a given groundwater condition, which can serve as a source of the colloids facilitating radionuclide migration through rock fractures.     

关于A型花岗岩判别过程中若干问题的讨论

自A型花岗岩提出(1979年)30年来,其内涵和外延相对于原始定义而言已发生了很大的变化。主要针对A型花岗岩的各种判别方法(尤其是判别图解)的有效性和局限性进行了讨论。这些判别方法对于A型花岗岩的判定并不总是奏效,所以在实践过程中不能过于依赖判别图解,否则就很容易得出错误的结论。 实际上,A型花岗岩最本质的特征很可能在于它是一种高温花岗岩(相对于I型和S型花岗岩),因此较高地温梯度下的各种地球动力学背景均有利于这一类型花岗岩的发育。     

关于A型花岗岩判别过程中若干问题的讨论

自A型花岗岩提出(1979年)30年来,其内涵和外延相对于原始定义而言已发生了很大的变化。主要针对A型花岗岩的各种判别方法(尤其是判别图解)的有效性和局限性进行了讨论。这些判别方法对于A型花岗岩的判定并不总是奏效,所以在实践过程中不能过于依赖判别图解,否则就很容易得出错误的结论。 实际上,A型花岗岩最本质的特征很可能在于它是一种高温花岗岩(相对于I型和S型花岗岩),因此较高地温梯度下的各种地球动力学背景均有利于这一类型花岗岩的发育。     

关于A型花岗岩判别过程中若干问题的讨论

自A型花岗岩提出(1979年)30年来,其内涵和外延相对于原始定义而言已发生了很大的变化.主要针对A型花岗岩的各种判别方法(尤其是判别图解)的有效性和局限性进行了讨论.这些判别方法对于A型花岗岩的判定并不总是奏效,所以在实践过程中不能过于依赖判别图解,否则就很容易得出错误的结论.实际上,A型花岗岩最本质的特征很可能在于它是一种高温花岗岩(相时于I型争S型花岗岩),因此较高地温梯度下的各种地球动力学背景均有利于这一类型花岗岩的发育.     

An integrated approach to assess the origins of black films on a granite monument

In the present study, samples arising from the scaling of a Portuguese granite building were examined in an attempt to understand the mechanisms of surface blackening and detachment. The building, the Third Order of St. Francis Church, is located in the city centre of Porto which is an area characterised by moderate motor traffic. The Mediterranean climate and the façade orientation favoured the proliferation of microorganisms on the Third Order of St. Francis Church, in Porto. The scientific approach carried out in the South façade revealed that these coloured layers are essentially of biological origin. Subsequent chemical analysis confirmed microscope observations and pointed out to the presence of organic matter synthesised by cyanobacteria, algae and lichens. Numerous biological marker compounds indicated a significant presence of biogenically derived material, suggesting that biological activity was playing a major role in the development of coloured layers and in the detachment processes in this historic building.     

Thermo-hydro-mechanical response of granite to temperature changes

This paper examines the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of a granitic rock. The cylindrical sample of granite contained a sealed fluid-filled cavity which was subjected to a cycle of temperature changes on its outer surface. The temperature and fluid pressure changes in the fluid-filled cavity were measured. Since the measurement of fluid pressure and temperature in the sealed cavity is experimentally feasible, the technique is a common feature in thermo-hydro-mechanical experiments. However, it was observed that regardless of how precisely the cavity was filled with de-aired water, air bubbles can still exist in the cavity and influence the fluid pressure changes. A novel technique is suggested for taking into account the influence of the volume of trapped air and eliminating its effect in the estimation of permeability. The experiment was computationally modelled using the finite element code COMSOL Multiphysics? and the experimental results were compared with the computational estimates.     

Post-failure behavior of a granite and diabase

SummaryPost-Failure Behavior of a Granite and Diabase Compression experiments have been performed on Westerly granite and Frederick diabase at a mean strain rate of 0 (10^–5) sec.^–1. In such tests Westerly granite and Frederick diabase exhibit Class II failure behavior between zero and 22000 psi and between 500 psi and 2200 psi, confining pressure respectively. In order to control brittle failure in these rocks, therefore, energy must be extracted from the samples.Complete stress-strain curves for Westerly granite can be divided into a number of characteristic regions. Each of these regions can be described in terms of distinct fracture patterns. In Westerly granite in uniaxial compression and at less than 2 900 psi confining pressure, the fracture patterns consist of local cracks predominantly parallel to the direction of greatest compression, slabs and narrow intensely crushed shear zones. At greater 2 900 psi confining pressure the fracture patterns consist of local cracks predominantly inclined to the direction of greatest compression and of macroscopic shear fractures. At high confining pressure, local cracks tend to propagate in their initial plane. The fracture patterns in Frederick diabase are sensibly the same as those in Westerly granite at 22000 psi confining pressure.The ultimate strength of Westerly granite above 22000 psi confining pressure and in Frederick diabase is controlled by faulting. At lower confining pressure faulting in granite occurs only in the post-failure region beyond the peak of the stress-strain curves.Preliminary experiments suggest that creep in Westerly granite under high and constant stress produces the same fracture patterns that occur in the post-failure region in continuous-deformation tests. In uniaxial compression creep terminates in macroscopic fracture near the intersection of the constant stress-strain path of a creep sample with the post-failure branch of the stress-strain curve of a quasi-statically loaded specimen.A comparison of all fracture patterns suggests that the fracture mechanisms in rock depend upon confining pressure, mineral composition and grain size of the rocks tested. It is unlikely, therefore, that rock failure in compression can in general be described by a single failure criterion.

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ZusammenfassungVerhalten von Granit und Diabas nach dem Bruch Druckversuche an Westerly-Granit und Frederick-Diabas bei einer mittleren Stauchungsgeschwindigkeit von 0 (10^–5) sec^–1 haben ergeben, daß Granit in den Grenzen von Null bis 22000 psi Manteldruck und Diabas zwischen 500 psi und 2200 psi Manteldruck ein Bruchverhalten der Klasse II aufweisen. Um den Bruchvorgang im post-failure-Bereich zu kontrollieren ist es daher notwendig, daß den Prüfkörpern Energie entzogen wird.Vollständige Kennlinien von Granit und Diabas können in eine Reihe von charakteristischen Abschnitten unterteilt werden, die jeweils bestimmte und ihnen eigene Brucherscheinungen aufweisen. Bei einachsiger Belastung und im Triaxialversuch unterhalb 2900 psi Manteldruck bestehen die Brucherscheinungen in Westerly-Granit aus feinen, über den Probekörper verteilten Haarrissen, vornehmlich parallel zur Auflast, aus Schalen sowie aus dünnen, intensiv aufgemahlenen Scherzonen. Der Makroskopische Bruch erfolgt als Verschiebungsbruch. Oberhalb 2900 psi Manteldruck entstehen Haarrisse, die vornehmlich zur Auflast geneigt sind und die bei fortschreitender Verformung des Prüfkörpers in ihrer ursprünglichen Ebene weiter aufreißen. Der sichtbare Bruch erfolgt bei hohem Manteldruck als Gleitungsbruch. Die Brucherscheinungen in Frederick-Diabas sind denen in Westerly-Granit bei 22000 psi Manteldruck nahezu gleich.Die Bruchfestigkeit von Westerly-Granit bei 22000 psi Manteldruck und in Frederick-Diabas ist von der Ausbildung von Gleitungsbrüchen bestimmt. Bei niedrigerem Manteldruck entstehen Gleitungs- oder Verschiebungsbrüche in Granit jedoch erst im post-failure-Bereich nach teils erheblicher Überschreitung der Bruchfestigkeit.Vorläufige Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, daß das Kriechen in Westerly-Granit unter hoher Spannung durch die gleichen Brucherscheinungen hervorgerufen oder von ihnen begleitet wird, die im post-failure-Bereich in quasi-statischen Versuchen beobachtet werden können. Im einachsigen Druckversuch führen Kriecherscheinungen ungefähr dann zum Bruch, wenn die Kennlinie einer Kriechprobe die Kennlinie eines ebenfalls einachsig aber quasistatisch belasteten Prüfkörpers im post-failure-Bereich schneidet.Ein Vergleich der Brucherscheinungen in einigen Gesteinen läßt darauf schließen, daß sich die Bruchmechanismen in Gesteinen mit der Höhe des Manteldrucks und mit der Beschaffenheit des Gesteins ändern. Es ist daher unwahrscheinlich, daß der Bruch von Gesteinen mit Hilfe eines einzigen Bruchkriteriums hinreichend beschrieben werden kann.

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RésuméComportement post-rupture d'un granite et d'une diabase Au cours d'expériences en compression à vitesse de déformation constante (10^–5 sec^–1) le granite de Westerly et la diabase de Frederick ont un comportement à la rupture dit de classe II pour des contraintes latérales variant entre 0 et 1500 bars pour le granite, et entre 30 et 150 bars pour la diabase. Il faut donc extraire de l'énergie des éprouvettes pour en contrôler la cassure.Les courbes complètes effort-déformation du granite de Westerly peuvent être divisées en un certain nombre de régions caractérisées chacune par un réseau de fracture particulier qui dépend d'ailleurs aussi de la contrainte latérale. Lorsque celle-ci est nulle, ou inférieure à 200 bars, le granite de Westerly développe un réseau de fracture consistant en plaques, en étroites zones de broyage intense et en fissures essentiellement parallèles à la direction de compression maximale. Lorsque la contrainte latérale est supérieure à 200 bars, le réseau de fractures consiste en fractures de cisaillement macroscopiques et en fissures locales faisant pour la plupart un angle avec la direction de compression maximale. Pour des contraintes latérales élevées, les fissures locales ont tendance à se propager dans leur plan initial. Le réseau de fractures développé dans la diabase de Frederick, quelle que soit la contrainte latérale, est à peu près identique à celui qui se développe dans le granite de Westerly pour une contrainte latérale de 1500 bars.Au dessus de 1500 bars de contrainte latérale, la charge de rupture des deux roches est régie par la formation d'une faille, alors qu'en dessous de 1500 bars une faille ne se forme dans le granite que dans la région qui suit la rupture, au delà du maximum de la courbe effort-déformation.Des expériences préliminaires suggèrent que le fluage du granite de Westerly soumis à des contraintes constantes élevées produit un réseau de fracture identique à celui obtenu dans la région qui suit la rupture dans des essais de déformation continue. En outre, en compression uniaxiale, le fluage se termine par une fracture macroscopique près de l'intersection de la courbe de déformation à charge constante avec la partie décroissante de la courbe complète effort-déformation d'une éprouvette chargée de façon quasi-statique.Une comparaison de tous les réseaux de fracture obtenus suggère que les mécanismes de fracture dépendent de la contrainte latérale, de la composition minéralogique et de la taille des grains de la roche éprouvée. Il est donc peu probable que la rupture des roches en compression puisse être en général décrite par un seul critère.

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With 12 Figures and 5 Plates     

Perturbed earth processes due to thermally induced deformation in a discontinuous granite mass

Summary The effect of thermally induced stress on fractured granite is considered, using mathematics to solve an engineering problem that includes: (1) physical information translated into a mathematical form; (2) a mathematical model proposing a solution of the problem and (3) interpretation of the solution in physical terms.This procedure, applied to an engineering problem demonstrates that theory and its physical applications are related.     

Albitization and amazonitization related to a Nb−Ta deposit in altered granite

A Nb- Ta- rare metal deposit has been discovered in an albitization-, amazonitization-granite by using amazonite as an indicator. The ore-bearing dyke, early Yenshanian in age, occurs in a Late Jurassic metamorphic sandstone and breccia. Three stages of albite can be distinguished, shewing regular variations in composition, optical property and structure with respective to different generations. Two generations of amazonite are noticed and studies are made on their composition and structure by using optical and X-ray diffraction methods. Amazonite is readily recognizable in the field by its colour. Its occurrence with albitization can be used as a prospecting indicator for Nb, Ta and other rare metals.     

花岗岩单裂隙渗流传热特性试验

基于岩石裂隙渗流传热试验系统,以蒸馏水为换热工质,针对预制平滑裂隙与粗糙裂隙的花岗岩岩样,开展不同试验温度与水流条件下的单裂隙对流换热特性试验研究。试验结果表明：①同一温度水平下,对流换热系数的量值与流量呈正相关关系,但对流换热系数的增幅大于流量的增幅,随岩石基质温度的升高,相同流量水平下的对流换热系数呈增大趋势;②与平滑裂隙试验结果相比,粗糙裂隙面的对流换热强度有所提高,但增幅不大;③沿渗流路径,裂隙面局部对流换热强度的演化呈现多波峰的非线性特征,其中粗糙裂隙的非线性更加强烈。但二者均存在由进水口至出水口,换热强度逐渐减弱的特征。④努塞尔数与普朗特数1/3次方的商与雷诺数较好地满足幂指数关系,随着试验温度的升高,这种关系逐渐向线性转变。     

Constraints on Variscan granite emplacement in north-east Bavaria,Germany: further clues from a petrogenetic study of the Mitterteich granite

Petrochemical and Rb-Sr, K-Ar and Sm-Nd isotopic data presented for the Mitterteich granite provide information on whole rock and mineral compositional characteristics, intrusion and cooling history, and protolith nature and put further constraints on the Variscan magmatic evolution in north-east Bavaria.The compositional characteristics classify the Mitterteich granite as a peraluminous (monzo-)granite (SiO₂ 67.3–73.5 wt.% ). Values for K₂O/Na₂O (> 1.2 and Al₂O₃/(CaO + N₂O + K₂O) (>1.1) are in the range of S-type granites. The rare earth elements show fractionated chondrite-normalized patterns (La _N /Yb _N =24–19) with negative Eu anomalies (Eu _N /Eu _N ^*=0.35–0.19). The micas have restricted ranges of major element composition, but reveal notable variations in trace element concentrations. Different biotite fractions of single specimens show a trend to lower concentrations of compatible elements in the finer fraction which can be explained as a result of asynchronous growth during the fractionation process. The PT conditions of crystallization of the magma based on muscovite and biotite is 600–640°C at 3 kbar. Regression of the whole rock samples gives an isochron corresponding to a ⁸⁷Rb-⁸⁷Sr age of 310 ± 7 Ma, initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of 0.7104±0.0010 (2 errors) and MSWD =0.03. Muscovite and biotite yield concordant K-Ar ages between 310 and 308 Ma, indicating a fast cooling rate of the granite intrusion. _{Nd T310}values average –4.2±1.0. Nd model ages of 1.4 Ga suggest a source region of mid-Proterozoic age.The Rb-Sr isochron age and initial Sr ratio of the Mitterteich granite are indistinguishable from those of the adjacent Falkenberg granite, establishing a genetic link. However, the K-Ar mica ages suggest that the Mitterteich granite must have undergone a faster uplift or cooling history than Falkenberg. Confronted with the geochronological record of granite emplacement in north-east Bavaria, the new results substantiate the view of three key periods of magmatic activity around 330–325, 315–305 and 290 Ma.     

原位微区同位素分析在花岗岩成因研究中的应用

花岗岩及其伴生的镁铁质岩石是构成大陆地壳的重要组成部分,是大陆形成演化的标志物。花岗岩的成因研究,包括花岗岩的岩浆源区及成岩过程,蕴含着大陆地壳生长、岩石圈演化等重要信息。随着二次离子质谱仪(SIMS)和激光多接收电感耦合等离子体质谱仪(LA-MC-ICPMS)的问世,原位微区(in-situ)元素和同位素分析方法开发以及应用使花岗岩成因研究,尤其是花岗岩的岩浆源区和成岩过程等方面得到长足的进展。在仔细阅读相关文献的基础上,结合笔者近年来相关研究工作,综述花岗岩成因研究中原位微区同位素源区示踪和成岩过程的最新进展,以期推动我国花岗岩及原位微区同位素分析方法等相关研究。     

花岗岩按照压力的分类

研究表明,中酸性火成岩大致按照Sr=400μg/g和Yb=2μg/g的标志可以划分为4种类型,即高Sr低Yb(Sr＞400×10-6,Yb＜2×10-6)、低Sr低Yb(Sr＜400×10-6,Yb＜2×10-6)、低Sr高Yb(Sr＜400×10-6,Yb＞2×10-6)和高Sr高Yb(Sr＞400×10-6,Yb＞2×10-6)型.其中,从低Sr高Yb型中还可以分出非常低Sr高Yb(Sr＜100×10-6,Yb＞2×10-6)的一类.着重探讨了这5类花岗岩形成的源区深度问题,指出按照残留相组成和花岗岩Sr、Yb含量,可以将花岗岩形成的压力分为3或4个级别:①高压下与石榴子石平衡的花岗岩具有高Sr低Yb的特征;②中等压力下,残留相为麻粒岩相(斜长石 石榴子石 角闪石 辉石),花岗岩具低Sr低Yb或高Sr高Yb的特点(取决于原岩成分);③低压下,残留相有斜长石无石榴子石的花岗岩为低Sr高Yb类型的;④与蛇绿岩有关的在洋壳剖面浅部由辉长岩部分熔融形成的M型花岗岩可能是非常低压(高温)条件下形成的.     

The Blomskog granite — a possible diapiric structure

A group of granitic intrusions occurs in western Sweden, showing a regular spacing between consecutive intrusions. Their spacing suggests solid-state doming of granitic material. However the textures of the rock are most easily interpreted in terms of crystallization from a magma. This interpretation is also consistent with contact observations and chemical characteristics of the rock. A hypothesis simultaneously explaining the textures and the spacing is presented, where doming of a light layer of potassium-rich migmatite is suggested to be followed by partial melting of the same rock. The magma collects at the top of the thus-formed sinusoidal waves and later intrudes into the country rock, where it crystallizes before reaching the surface.     

Observations on fabric evolution to a common micromechanical state at the soil-structure interface

The fabric plays an important role in the mechanical behavior of granular material. The aim of this paper is to investigate the evolution of fabric in a soil-structure interface (SSI) to a large shearing in an effort to clarify whether and how this form of fabric evolution can lead to a common microstructure. Using the discrete element method (DEM), two-dimensional (2D) numerical interface shear tests were carried out, and certain macromechanical and micromechanical properties were exploited. All samples exhibited prominently localized strain in a zone covering the structure's surface (named the localized zone), and much lower density and higher soil fabric anisotropy levels were found inside this zone than outside it. Disregarding different initial void ratios, a common critical state microstructure was observed in large shear deformations of soil samples, with essentially the same fabric arrangement in terms of contact orientation and internal force transmission. Due to the systematic forming, buckling, and collapsing of force chains, an angular zone (called an α -zone), in which contact density was sluggish to varying degrees, appeared and extended around the main direction of the distribution of contact orientation inside the localized zone. The gradual deterioration of the force chains' stability, as a result of an increasing void ratio, seemed to drive the α -zone's extension and lead to the rare variation of microstructures in the critical state.