Heat-induced moisture movement in a clay barrier I. Experimental modelling of borehole emplacement

The paper presents the results of a series laboratory experiments which were conducted to study the heat-induced moisture movement in a bentonitic clay buffer region. In the experimental investigations, hygro-thermal phenomena are induced by a cylindrical heater which is placed within the compacted buffer material located in a borehole centrally situated in a granite block. The paper summarizes the experimental methodologies and presents results for the time-dependent distribution of temperatures within the granite block and the residual moisture distribution within the buffer at the termination of the experiment.     

Heat-induced moisture movement in a clay barrier II. Computational modelling and comparison with experimental results

The paper presents the application of a Galerkin finite-element technique for the numerical solution of the differential equations governing coupled heat flow and moisture movement in a clay buffer. Attention is focussed on the axisymmetric modelling of the hygro-thermal processes encountered in the single borehole emplacement configuration developed for laboratory simulation. The numerical results derived for the time-dependent temperature distributions within the granite block and the residual moisture distribution within the buffer are compared with the respective experimental results.     

Heat-induced moisture transport in the vicinity of a spherical heat source

The present paper develops an analytical approach to the problem of heat-induced moisture movement in the vicinity of a spherical heat source embedded in an undeformable, moist porous solid of infinite extent. A transient-state distribution of temperature within the infinite medium is assumed to induce the moisture transport process. The numerical results, presented in the paper, illustrate the influence of the moisture transport characteristics on the time-dependent distribution of moisture within the porous medium. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Clay as sealing material in nuclear waste repositories

Nuclear waste from thermal plants poses a lasting risk to the biosphere because of its long radioactive life. The planned definitive storage place for it is in deeply buried repositories. Such repositories would need to be both impermeable to water, and plastic during deformation, in order to avoid the formation of cracks that may allow water in. One of the clay minerals, smectite, has these two properties and is an ideal candidate as a sealing material or even host rock for nuclear waste repositories. The chemical stability of smectite in the repository environment is sufficient to maintain good sealing properties during the active life of the relevant radionuclides.     

Evaluation of coupled heat and moisture flow parameters in a bentonite-sand buffer material

Several series of one-dimensional tests were used to study the nature of transient heat and moisture movements in a clay buffer under different imposed temperature gradients. The measured temperature and moisture profiles were used to calculate the diffusion parameters governing heat and moisture movement in the buffer material. The experimentally determined diffusion parameters are shown to be dependent on the moisture content and temperature. The diffusion parameters were calculated by using an identification technique, the root-time method, and an analytical technique.     

A comparison of field-monitored and numerically predicted moisture movement in unsaturated soil

This paper presents the results of the application of a numerical model of flow of water in unsaturated soil to simulate real field behaviour. Numerical predictions are compared with field-monitored results as part of an assessment of the approach adopted. The numerical approach is based on a finite element solution of Richards' theoretical formulation, adopting a finite difference recurrence relationship to model the transient nature of the problem. The field results have been collected by British Gas in Kimmeridge clay at a site in Swindon. The simulation addressed the autumn wetting of the soil during 1983. Comparisons of volumetric moisture content readings from the field and numerical predictions give good correlation. It is concluded that the numerical model has adequately represented field behaviour over the depth of interest. Taken in conjunction with previous results, it is claimed that the model should now be capable of use in a predictive mode.     

Evolution of sealing efficiency for CO2 geological storage due to mineral alteration within a hydrogeologically heterogeneous caprock

In CO₂ geological storage (CGS) context, the evolution of the caprock sealing capacity has received increasing attention, particularly on a geological time span (thousands of years). At this time scale, geochemical reactions may enhance or weaken the caprock quality. It is widely recognized that, for the reservoir, geological heterogeneities affect the concentration and spatial distribution of CO₂, and then affect the extent of gas–water–rock interactions, which in turn alters the hydrogeological properties of the reservoir. However, much less attention of these effects has been paid to the caprock. In this study, we presented and applied a novel approach to evaluate the effects of permeability and porosity heterogeneities on the alteration of minerals, the associated evolution of the caprock sealing efficiency and the containment of supercritical CO₂ (scCO₂) within the caprock. Even though this is a generic study, several conditions and parameters such as pressure, permeability, and mineral composition, were extracted from a caprock layer of the Shiqianfeng Formation in the Ordos Basin demonstration site in China. For the sake of simplification, a 2-dimensional model was designed to represent the caprock domain. We firstly generated an appropriate heterogeneous random field of permeability with the average permeability taken from the uppermost mudstone layer of the Shiqianfeng Formation, and then the heterogeneity in porosity was incorporated using a joint normal distribution method based on the available data. Homogeneous mineral compositions of the reservoir and caprock were used in all simulations. Simulations of three cases were performed, including a homogeneous case, a case with only permeability heterogeneity and a case with both permeability and porosity heterogeneities. The results demonstrate dramatic influences of permeability and porosity heterogeneities on the migration of scCO₂ within the caprock, the alteration of minerals, and therefore the evolution of the caprock sealing quality. Specific to the data used in this study, hydrogeological heterogeneities facilitated the overall penetration of scCO₂ within the caprock and promoted the alteration of minerals, thereby weakening the caprock sealing efficiency over the simulation time.     

粗粒土组构之颗粒运动研究

土的结构性是决定土的力学特性的一个最根本的因素,正是由于土的结构性的存在,连续体力学理论用于岩土材料存在明显不足,沈珠江将土体结构性的研究提到“21世纪土力学的核心问题”的高度,但由于土的结构性的复杂性,缺乏测试方法,还没有找到土结构性的定量指标。选择结构特征相对简单的粗粒土作为研究对象,探索建立其力学体系的方法和途径。粗粒土的结构性（称之为组构）主要体现在颗粒的排列特征方面,采用CT测试技术和DDA数值分析方法初步解决了粗粒土组构的量化问题,对粗粒土多种受力过程进行了CT三轴试验和数值模拟,取得了粗粒土的组构信息及其变化,为构成合理的组构量、研究粗粒土组构量与宏观力学响应之间的相互关系、探讨粗粒土的变形机理和力学特征奠定了基础,并侧重介绍粗粒土CT三轴试验成果,展示三轴试验过程中颗粒运动规律。     

多年冻土区活动层土壤水分对不同高寒生态系统的响应

土地覆被变化对土壤水分的影响是生态水文学和流域水文学研究的关键问题,基于长江源典型多年冻土区不同高寒草地土壤水分的观测,结合降水、生物量（包括地上和地下）和土壤理化性质,研究了活动层土壤水分变化对不同高寒生态系统的响应. 结果表明：高寒草甸生物量、土壤养分含量均比高寒草原高,且对降水响应更为强烈,致使高寒草甸土壤水分变异性弱于高寒草原. 在土壤完全融化阶段,高寒草甸土壤活动层存在一个低含水层（50 cm左右）和两个相对高含水层（20 cm和120 cm）,但高寒草原土壤水分在活动层剖面上有随深度逐渐增大的一致性趋势;在秋季冻结过程中,高寒草甸土冻结起始日滞后于高寒草原土3~15 d;在春季融化阶段,高寒草原土更高的含冰量需要更多的融化潜热. 此外,表层土壤中（0~20 cm）,高寒草甸土比高寒草原土有更大的持水特性,而在活动层中下部则呈现完全相反的结果,不同高寒生态系统的演替改变了土壤的水热迁移过程.     

Expansion properties and creep tests for a new type of solidified expansive sealing material for gas drainage boreholes in underground mines

This study was conducted to find the optimal expansion for a new type of solidified expansive sealing (SES) material. The aim was to better meet the requirements for sealing gas extraction boreholes in underground coal mines by examining the expansion and creep properties of the material. The effect of different proportions of expansion agent on expansion time, expansion mechanisms, and creep properties of the SES material was investigated using an electronic universal testing machine and other systems. Based on the results of step loading creep tests, the Kelvin–Voigt viscoelastic model was selected to further analyze the mechanical properties of the material. The analysis showed that when the proportion of expansion agent in the SES is increased to 2.0%, the final expansion percentage increases to 11.5%, and the rapid expansion time and expansion preparation time quickly decreases to 18 and 12 min, respectively. In addition, the step loading displacement and constant force load displacement increase sharply. The creep parameters E₀, E₁, and η₁ of the Kelvin–Voigt model reflect the gradually weakening of the compressive capacity and anti-deformation ability of the SES material. Based on the analysis of the experimental results and field application on sealing boreholes using SES material, it was possible to establish the optimum amount of expansion agent that should be added to the SES material. The optimized proportions can meet the requirements of good flowability, high compressive capacity, and anti-deformation ability for borehole sealing in a mine.     

高寒针茅草原土壤湿度变化特征及与降水量和牧草产量的关系

利用青海省三江源区兴海县牧业气象站1999-2012年西北针茅牧草生长季的土壤湿度、降水量及牧草产量资料,分析了西北针茅牧草生长季不同生育期土壤相对湿度的变化特征,及与降水量和牧草产量的关系。结果表明：高寒草地西北针茅牧草生长季降水量随年际呈显著增加趋势。牧草返青和枯黄期间的降水量呈减少趋势,抽穗、开花和成熟期降水量均呈增加趋势,其中开花期间的降水量增加趋势极显著。牧草生长季土壤相对湿度随年际呈显著上升趋势,且与生长季降水量之间相关极显著。牧草开花、成熟、抽穗和枯黄期土壤相对湿度的增加趋势显著。牧草开花期土壤相对湿度与气温为显著正相关,抽穗期和全生育期的土壤相对湿度与气温负相关显著。抽穗期、开花期、成熟期和全生育期土壤相对湿度与降水量正相关显著。西北针茅牧草产量与枯黄期土壤相对湿度呈极显著的相关关系。     

高吸水材料改善高含水率淤泥流动性的试验研究

城市疏浚和建设过程中产生的高含水率淤泥具有高流动性的典型特点,导致此类淤泥运输、周转都极为不便。开展了利用高吸水材料改善淤泥流动性的试验,研究结果表明,淤泥的流动性随着含水率的升高而显著上升,曲线拟合结果显示两者之间近似成二次函数关系。通过添加较少量的高吸水材料就可以使淤泥的流动性迅速降低到非常利于运输和周转的程度;引入“净流动值”定量地描述高吸水材料对淤泥流动性的改善效果,不同初始含水率的淤泥在添加一定比例的高吸水材料后其“净流动值”降低比例处于相同水平;高吸水材料对淤泥流动性的改善效果在极短时间内可以得到显著体现,未进行充分搅拌混合的情况下淤泥流动值改善就已接近最优值,搅拌的持续时间和强度对淤泥流动性改善效果并无明显影响,工程应用时的工作耗时和工作强度将会明显降低。     

季节冻土区黑土耕层土壤冻融过程及水分变化

利用黑龙江省水利科学研究院水利试验研究中心综合实验观测场2011年11月-2012年4月整个冻结融化期的实测野外黑土耕层土壤温度和水分数据, 对中-深季节冻土区黑土耕层土壤冻融过程中冻结和融化特征分阴、阳坡进行了分析, 研究了冻融过程中不同深度土壤水分的变化情况, 并探讨了降水对不同深度耕层土壤含水量变化的影响. 结果表明:黑土耕层土壤冻结融化过程分为5个阶段, 历时164 d, 约5.5个月. 阶段I, 秋末冬初黑土耕层土壤开始步入冻结期; 阶段II, 黑土耕层土壤整日处于冻结状态, 阴坡比同样深度的阳坡土壤温度低; 阶段III为黑土耕层土壤稳定冻结期; 阶段IV, 黑土耕层土壤步入昼融夜冻的日循环交替状态, 冻融循环的土层逐渐向深部发展, 阳坡比阴坡融化得更深、更早, 阴坡比阳坡经历冻融循环次数更多; 阶段V为稳定融化期, 在融化过程不存在冻融交替的现象, 直到整个冻层内的土壤全部消融. 各深度位置阴坡土壤温度的最高值出现时间比阳坡晚约0.5 h. 经过整个冻结融化期后, 阴、阳坡各层土壤含水量均大于冻结前, 阴坡土壤含水量比阳坡整体偏低. 在整个冻结融化期, 阳坡地下1 cm、5 cm、10 cm 及15 cm处含水量最大值出现在地下5 cm; 阴坡的含水量整体趋于平稳且在融化期受降水影响明显.     

An assessment of borehole sealing performance in a salt environment

 Design of plugs for abandonment of boreholes and shafts may be governed by the bond strength between the plug and host rock. This paper presents the results of push-out tests on cement grout plugs in salt. Two types of expandable cement grouts have been tested. The average interface shear strengths ranged from 2 to 12 MPa (290 to 1740 psi). Peak shear stresses at failure, assuming an elastic stress distribution along the interface, were up to eight times higher. Standard deviations commonly reached 20%. Dissolution along the interface was observed, and may have been enhanced by clay inclusions in the salt. This dissolution appears to have reduced bond strengths. Application of the results to the design of plugs for larger openings (for example, shafts, drifts, or boreholes) is discussed. Received: 6 March 1996 · Accepted: 16 July 1996     

Conversion of carbonaceous material to graphite within the Greywacke Zone of the Eastern Alps

Morphology and reflectance of carbonaceous material (CM) in Late Carboniferous metasediments of the eastern Greywacke Zone (Eastern Alps) indicate a mixture of vitrinite, grainy textured and lamellar shaped particles. As imaged by high-resolution atomic-force microscopy, vitrinite and the grainy textured particles show mesophase structures which can be described as facetted nanocrystals within the carbon matrix. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy has revealed two types of microtextures representing different degrees of graphitization. The first type is characterized by elongated ring-shaped microtextures, whereas the second type is characterized by graphite lamellae and polygonal flakes with long-range ordered aromatic layers. In spite of the heterogeneity of the CMs, the geographical distribution of quantitative metamorphic parameter (Raman spectra parameter, X-ray diffraction pattern, microscopic reflectance) suggests a graphitization process which is promoted by advective heat transport during post-collisional processes. In a tentative pressure-time path, Late Cretaceous thrusting results in a turbostratic ordering of the aromatic layer. Ordering to long-range ordered aromatic layers was achieved during the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene exhumation of mid-crustal rocks beneath the eastern Greywacke Zone.     

Late Miocene movement within the Himalayan Main Central Thrust shear zone, Sikkim, north-east India

In the Sikkim region of north‐east India, the Main Central Thrust (MCT) juxtaposes high‐grade gneisses of the Greater Himalayan Crystallines over lower‐grade slates, phyllites and schists of the Lesser Himalaya Formation. Inverted metamorphism characterizes rocks that immediately underlie the thrust, and the large‐scale South Tibet Detachment System (STDS) bounds the northern side of the Greater Himalayan Crystallines. In situ Th–Pb monazite ages indicate that the MCT shear zone in the Sikkim region was active at c. 22, 14–15 and 12–10 Ma, whereas zircon and monazite ages from a slightly deformed horizon of a High Himalayan leucogranite within the STDS suggest normal slip activity at c. 17 and 14–15 Ma. Although average monazite ages decrease towards structurally lower levels of the MCT shear zone, individual results do not follow a progressive younging pattern. Lesser Himalaya sample KBP1062A records monazite crystallization from 11.5 ± 0.2 to 12.2 ± 0.1 Ma and peak conditions of 610 ± 25 °C and 7.5 ± 0.5 kbar, whereas, in the MCT shear zone rock CHG14103, monazite crystallized from 13.8 ± 0.5 to 11.9 ± 0.3 Ma at lower grade conditions of 525 ± 25 °C and 6 ± 1 kbar. The P–T–t results indicate that the shear zone experienced a complicated slip history, and have implications for the understanding of mid‐crustal extrusion and the role of out‐of‐sequence thrusts in convergent plate tectonic settings.     

Soil moisture potential and water content in the unsaturated zone within the arid Ejina Oasis in Northwest China

Three soil profiles were selected in the Ejina Oasis, northwest China, to determine water content profiles and evolution of soil moisture potentials in the unsaturated zone within the arid area. The total soil moisture potentials have been monitored for about 3 months in 2001 at different depths in the soil profiles. The occurrence and movement of water in the unsaturated zone was analyzed using the zero flux plane (ZFP) method. It is shown that convergent ZFPs and divergent ZFPs may occur at depths between 0.5 and 3.0 m, and that the depth of the ZFPs was controlled by the root zone of plants growing on the land surface. Profiles of the total soil moisture potentials were observed to be coincident with those of the water contents at the three experimental sites. The total soil moisture potential showed a slight increasing trend and the ZFPs tend to vanish from summer to winter as the water extraction by roots decreased. Evapotranspiration through vegetation has an important bearing on the water content and the total potential in the unsaturated zone.     

Water movement within lac du bonnet batholith as revealed by detailed thermal studies of three closely-spaced boreholes

Successive temperature logs have been obtained over a period of two years in three closely-spaced boreholes in the Lac du Bonnet batholith of the Superior Province of the Canadian Shield. Two of the boreholes, of depth 450 m and 830 m, intersect a dipping fracture zone at 435–450 m. In both holes water is flowing from near the surface to the fracture zone at approximately 1.5–1.9·10⁻⁵ m³ s⁻¹, the flow being inferred from analysis of the temperature logs. Below 25 m, temperatures in these two holes are 0.22–0.28 K lower than those in the third, 145 m, hole.The temperature data have been combined with over 200 thermal conductivity measurements on core samples to produce heat flow values. In the deepest hole heat flow above the fracture zone is 16% higher than that below the zone. This indicates that water is flowing up the fracture zone. The flow rate is approximately 0.3 g s⁻¹ m⁻¹, and the flow has existed for thousands of years.Observation of thermal effects of water flow in massive, relatively unfractured plutons in a region having little topographic relief causes one to be concerned about the reliability of heat flow values measured in similar environments.The regional heat flow is taken to be 50 mW m⁻² after correction for glaciation effects. The average value of 24 determinations of radioactive heat generation in granitic core samples is 5.23 ± 1.11 μW m⁻³, which is more than three times higher than expected for such a heat flow in the Superior Province. This implies that the layer of high radioactive heat generation is thin, being not more than 4 km and probably about 1.3 km thick.     

Fracture sealing of quartzite under a temperature gradient: experimental results

Veined lithologies are formed by fracturing and sealing processes, with the veins representing former fluid conduits through the rock. Although detailed fieldwork and numerical simulations have provided a better understanding of vein growth, few studies have attempted to seal fractures and generate veins experimentally. In this pilot study, we subjected fractured quartzite to temperature gradients of 45–125 °C under hydrothermal conditions in a static fluid, with the aim of precipitating secondary quartz in the cooler portions of the fracture. Results show that secondary quartz precipitates due to the imposed temperature gradient, causing the initial fracture to seal locally. Although no systematic sealing pattern was observed along the fracture, samples subjected to higher temperatures exhibit a smaller fracture width and appear to have reacted more extensively. Electron microprobe mapping visualizes the spatial distribution of secondary quartz, which contains elevated concentrations of aluminium.