A modular graph transformation rule set for IFC‐to‐CityGML conversion

Conversion of Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) building models into CityGML city models is one of the operational scenarios for BIM–GIS integration, with a variety of applications producing and consuming data on either side. Given the in‐depth cross‐domain knowledge required to specify such conversions, the heterogeneity of the IFC input data and the use cases for the resulting CityGML, flexible and configurable solutions are needed that make conversion details accessible to domain specialists. Graph transformation as a conversion method fulfils these requirements. We propose to extend the modularity given by single transformation rules at a more coarse‐grained level and identify four layers with modules of associated rules. We describe a self‐contained set of rules across these modules and demonstrate its application to a range of building models.     

Utilities of Virtual 3D City Models Based on CityGML: Various Use Cases

Virtual 3D city models are increasingly being used to model the realms of the real world for utilization in a number of applications related to environmental simulations including, urban planning, mapping the energy characteristics of buildings, noise mapping, flood modelling, etc. Apart from geometric and appearance/textural information, these applications have a requirement for complex urban semantics. Currently, a number of 3D standards are available in CAD, BIM and GIS related domains for the storage, visualization and transfer of 3D geospatial datasets. Initially, the 3D data models (such as COLLADA, VRML, X3D, etc.) were purely graphical/geometrical in nature and mainly used for visualization purposes. With the inclusion of thematic modules in OGC CityGML, the integration of geometry and semantics in a single data model paved the way for better sharing of virtual 3D city models. In spite of the availability of a wide range of 3D data standards, there are certain differences with respect to geometry, topology, semantics, LODs, etc., which complicates the integration of 3D geodata from heterogeneous sources. This paper serves to highlights the need for the innovative solutions with respect to the urban environmental related simulations primarily based on the use of virtual 3D city models. Four use cases are studied in this context namely, (1) urban solar potential estimation using CityGML models, (2) simulation of traffic noise level mapped on building walls from the urban road segments, (3) CityGML based 3D data models interoperability, and (4) 3D indoor logistics and subsurface utilities. However, for modelling majority of use cases, CityGML does not provide explicit thematic representations but provides support for extending the CityGML schema using Application Domain Extensions. In a nutshell, the study explores the semantic modelling capabilities of the CityGML for the transformation of native 3D virtual city models to one satisfying capabilities like semantic information and support towards interoperability.     

一种含室内空间结构的建筑物3D LOD概念模型与生成方法

针对现有建筑物多细节层次（level of detail,LOD）表达主要面向外部,很少涉及内部空间的问题,提出一种含室内空间结构的建筑物三维LOD概念模型。该模型分为LOD0~LOD6 7个LOD,细节层次由建筑物的基底平面图、幢模型、无侧面楼层模型、楼层模型、户模型、房间模型到含门、窗等建筑语义的信息房间模型,空间细节逐次变细,丰富了建筑物室内空间LOD的表达理论。为构建这种LOD模型,提出基于胞腔复形链边界算子和上边界算子的LOD生成方法。该方法引入代数拓扑的胞腔、胞腔复形和复形链3个概念,利用胞腔和胞腔复形表达LOD,并在LOD6的基础上,利用边界算子和上边界算子生成其他粗空间粒度LOD模型,为三维城市模型建筑物LOD构建提供一种新方法。     

对城市地理标记语言(CityGML)的探讨

虚拟3D城市模型是三维城市GIS研究的基础。本文对CityGML1.0(City Geography Markup Language1.0,城市地理标记语言)的发展和核心技术进行了深入的研究,其主要内容包含了CityGML1.0的5层LOD模型、空间数据模型、CityGML模块、应用领域扩展等,还给出了基于CityGML1.0开发的系统实例,最后对CityGML的应用和发展进行了预测。     

Development of CityGML Application Domain Extension for Indoor Routing and Positioning

CityGML is an open data model for storage and exchange of 3D city models. It is categorised into thirteen thematic classes, i.e., buildings, tunnels, bridges, etc., lacking the other themes such as indoor routing and positioning. With the amplified use of indoor routing and positioning, the need for prerequisite notion of detailed semantic, as well as geometric information of the 3D building data has grown. We intend to extend the CityGML schema to add attributes of indoor features using the facility of Application Domain Extension (ADE) provided by the OGC CityGML 2.0. In this study, we aim to showcase the formation of Indoor Routing and Positioning ADE along with the process concerning its development, such as the 3D model design, network dataset creation, routing, positioning and Unified Modeling Language based ADE application schema generation. This research would help the users to easily store and exchange 3D city data on which they can perform routing and positioning inside the buildings with enhanced semantic and geometric properties.     

Modelling and analysing 3D buildings with a primal/dual data structure

While CityGML permits us to represent 3D city models, its use for applications where spatial analysis and/or real-time modifications are required is limited since at this moment the possibility to store topological relationships between the elements is rather limited and often not exploited. We present in this paper a new topological data structure, the dual half-edge (DHE), which permits us to represent the topology of 3D buildings (including their interiors) and of the surrounding terrain. It is based on the idea of simultaneously storing a graph in 3D space and its dual graph, and to link the two. We propose Euler-type operators for incrementally constructing 3D models (for adding individual edges, faces and volumes to the model while updating the dual structure simultaneously), and we also propose navigation operators to move from a given point to all the connected planes or polyhedra for example. The DHE also permits us to store attributes to any element. We have implemented the DHE and have tested it with different CityGML models. Our technique allows us to handle important query types, for example finding the nearest exterior exit to a given room, as in disaster management planning. As the structure is locally modifiable the model may be adapted whenever a particular pathway is no longer available. The proposed DHE structure adds significant analytic value to the increasingly popular CityGML model.     

基于CityGML的城市建筑物三维建模研究

城市建筑物三维建模是虚拟3D城市建模的基础和重要组成部分。本文对基于CityGML1.0（City Geography Markup Language 1.0,城市地理标记语言）的城市建筑物三维建模技术进行了深入的研究,主要内容包含了CityGML1.0的简介、城市建筑物三维建模的方法和内容等,并给出了一个实际建模的例...     

Comparison of versioning methods to improve the information flow in the planning and building processes

Version management is a prerequisite for digital information flow between phases in the planning and building processes. Information evolves over time and many parties retrieve information from the various phases. The aim of this article is to evaluate versioning methods, focusing on geodata buildings in the 3D cadastre process. The main attention in the evaluation is on the comprehensive ISO standard Product Lifecycle Support (PLCS). PLCS is evaluated against two simpler versioning methods, the versioning in CityGML 3.0 and a modified Git versioning method implemented in CityJSON. CityGML 3.0 fulfils all but one requirement and PLCS meets all. The methods vary in complexity; the Git proposal is a simple solution, easy to implement and maintain, while PLCS includes all functionalities and is complex to implement. There is a trade‐off between number of functionalities and complexity, it is therefore important that the intended purpose determines the choice of versioning method.     

园林古建筑网络互动系统数据建设与开发

以东莞可园为例,提出一种基于三维激光扫描技术和网络仿真技术的园林古建筑三维数据和互动系统的建设方案。对园林古建筑精细扫描,建立古建筑、家具、植被、地形的多层次细节的三维模型;采集并编制属性数据、多媒体数据;采用Unity3D引擎开发C/S和B/S模式的网络仿真互动系统。系统具有集成漫游、信息查询、语音导览、自然现象模拟等功能,实现对园林古建筑多视角、全方位的描述和基于网络的交互展示。     

顾及多细节层次的三维R树索引扩展方法

多细节层次表达是三维GIS的重要特征之一。为提高细节层次模型的管理效率,本文提出一种扩展多细节层次功能的三维R树索引方法,通过全局优化和三维聚类分析建立动态三维R树索引,研制了先自下而上、后自上而下全局搜索的节点选择算法和基于k-medoids聚类算法的节点分裂算法,保证节点尺寸均匀、形状规则以及重叠减少。基于良好的三维树形结构,本文扩展了传统的三维R树索引结构,实现R树索引和细节层次模型的无缝集成。为验证本文方法的有效性,通过仿真实验,结果证明了本文方法能很大程度地提升多细节层次三维城市模型数据库的空间查询效率,具有较好的应用前景和实用价值。     

A Gestalt rules and graph-cut-based simplification framework for urban building models

To visualize large urban models efficiently, this paper presents a framework for generalizing urban building footprints and facade textures by using multiple Gestalt rules and a graph-cut-based energy function. First, an urban scene is divided into different blocks by main road networks. In each block, the building footprints are partitioned into potential Gestalt groups. A footprint may satisfy several Gestalt principles. We employ the graph-cut-based optimization function to obtain a consistent segmentation of the buildings into optimal Gestalt groups with minimal energy. The building footprints in each Gestalt group are aggregated into different levels of detail (LODs). Building facade textures are also abstracted and simplified into multiple LODs using the same approach as the building footprint simplification. An effective data structure termed SceneTree is introduced to manage these aggregated building footprints and facade textures. Combined with the parallelization scheme, the rendering efficiency of large-scale urban buildings is improved. Compared with other methods, our presented method can efficiently visualize large urban models and maintain the city's image.     

A procedural footprint enhancement of global topographic surface with multiple levels of detail

ABSTRACT

Virtual globes are technologies for visual navigation through a three-dimensional, multi-resolution model of the entire planet. Data representations used in virtual globes, however, lack geometric flexibility at high-resolution levels of the planet-wide terrain surface. This is a problem especially if boundaries between individual geospatial features and the terrain are important. A novel integration of individual polygonal boundaries with a specific multi-resolution representation of the planet-wide terrain is developed in this article. In the preparation stage, the integration relies on an original simplification algorithm applied to the polygonal boundaries between geospatial features and the terrain. Its output is a multiple level-of-detail (LOD) geometry, which can be combined with a known multi-LOD representation of the terrain that uses run-time triangulation. This data representation is suitable for storage in existing database systems, avoids any data redundancy across LODs, and is even independent of the subdivision schema that partitions the planet's surface for the sake of dealing with LODs. At run-time, a novel reconstruction algorithm stitches geometric parts from different LODs together in a manner that augments the multi-LOD representation of the terrain. Within a certain proximity range from a given position, the method reconstructs a scene that preserves topological relations between the boundaries of geospatial features with the terrain. The method also guarantees that certain nearest proximity to the given position consists of the best geometries that correspond to the original datasets. Such properties of the method close up the gap between a mere exploratory visualization of static, pre-generated models and the models supporting geospatial analysis, which is deemed crucial for applications in Geographic Information Systems, Building Information Modelling and other software industries. A prototype implementation and experiment results that prove this method are also presented.     

利用三维激光点云重构建筑物模型

随着三维激光点云数据获取能力的提升,基于三维激光点云进行建筑物模型重建与立面测绘成为工程应用中常用的方法。三维激光点云数据能够体现建筑物丰富和直观的细节信息,然而海量数据处理给建筑物模型构建带来了极大挑战。本文通过对建筑物的三维激光点云数据进行横切得到建筑物轮廓点,并采用基于遗传算法的TSP算法对轮廓点进行处理以获取建筑物各立面的方程系数,最终实现建筑物模型的构建和获取详细的建筑物立面数据。试验结果表明,此方法可以较好地实现LOD1级建筑物模型的构建,进而为更高（LOD3）级别的建筑物模型构建提供依据。     

UML‐Based Approach to Developing a CityGML Application Domain Extension

Recently a national 3D standard was established in the Netherlands as a CityGML Application Domain Extension (called IMGeo). In line with the Dutch practice of modeling geo‐information, the ADE is developed using a model driven approach. The classes are designed in UML and automatically mapped to GML schema. The current OGC CityGML specification does not provide rules or guidance on correctly modeling an ADE in UML. This article fills this gap by studying how CityGML can be extended for specific applications starting from the UML diagrams. Six alternatives for modeling ADEs in UML are introduced and compared. The optimal alternative is selected and applied to obtain the national 3D standard. The approach was extensively discussed with international experts, who were members of both SIG3D and other working groups. As a consequence the approach was adopted by the SIG3D, the Special Interest Group 3D which, among other things, work on the 3D standard CityGML in cooperation with OGC. Therefore the approach contains many issues that can be generalized and reused by future domain extensions of CityGML. To further support this, the article formulates a model‐driven framework to model CityGML ADEs. Open issues are described in the conclusions.     

应用3DXML管理三维建筑物LOD模型

随着三维城市的建设,数据内容将日益增加,数据量不断加大,多细节层次技术、模型简化技术和数据存储管理技术日益显示出其应用的重要性。因此,本文分析了有关虚拟场景中建筑物模型多细节层次技术的层级划分和生成实现方式。从而进一步探讨了实现细节层次模型所需的建筑物模型简化方法,以及应用一种基于XML的3D图形标准的3DXML实现对城市三维建筑物模型LOD信息的管理。     

A multiple representation data structure for dynamic visualisation of generalised 3D city models

In this paper, a novel multiple representation data structure for dynamic visualisation of 3D city models, called CityTree, is proposed. To create a CityTree, the ground plans of the buildings are generated and simplified. Then, the buildings are divided into clusters by the road network and one CityTree is created for each cluster. The leaf nodes of the CityTree represent the original 3D objects of each building, and the intermediate nodes represent groups of close buildings. By utilising CityTree, it is possible to have dynamic zoom functionality in real time. The CityTree methodology is implemented in a framework where the original city model is stored in CityGML and the CityTree is stored as X3D scenes. A case study confirms the applicability of the CityTree for dynamic visualisation of 3D city models.     

基于CityGML的城市三维模型的描述方法

传统的三维城市空间数据库中,在实现空间数据共享、互操作以及满足各应用者对数据的特殊要求方面存在着诸多未能解决的问题。通过对OGC标准中CityGML三维模型描述方法的研究,从LOD、坐标系统、拓扑定义方面进行分析研究,从而为城市三维模型信息的描述与管理提供更优的方法。     

利用CityGML模型自动构建三维封闭建筑体

给出了利用CityGML模型自动构建三维封闭建筑体的基本框架和流程。充分利用已有的CityGML数据,分析其与三维封闭建筑体的语义关联和差别,奠定利用CityGML构建三维封闭建筑体的理论基础;从构建三维封闭建筑体所需几何数据出发,根据语义关联从CityGML中提取相应的几何数据,构建符合三维封闭建筑体要求的几何对象,满足三维立体规划和审批、核查的空间数据需要,进而弥补传统地籍数据采集方式的不足。     

三维城市模型中建筑物LOD模型研究

建筑物模型在三维城市模型(3DCM)中占有相当大的比重,建筑物模型多细节层次(LOD)的建立和表达直接关系到三维城市模型的整体显示效率和真实表现力,是三维城市模型的重要研究内容之一。本文从建筑物模型的纹理特征和几何结构出发,论述了建筑物LOD模型的建立原则,并从应用角度就建筑物各个细节层次模型的特点、应用范围与数据获取等方面进行了分析。     

一种基于CityGML的三维模型单体化方法

实景三维中国建设应满足自然资源管理与社会经济发展需求,因此需要对基础地理信息产品进行实体化改造,三维模型单体化正是实体化改造的关键环节。本文提出了一种基于CityGML的三维模型单体化方法,首先根据地物实体轮廓的二维矢量面提供的顶点坐标及高程信息,构造墙面、屋顶等多边形平面组成地物的简单三维表达,然后配合渲染到纹理技术（RTT）进行纹理贴图,基于CityGML为每个二维矢量面对应的地物重构出有语义、有LOD层级的三维模型。该方法能够高效地实现三维模型单体化,且成果模型容量小,可满足各种实景三维应用需求。