Angiosperms (seagrass) within the EU water framework directive: a UK perspective

Taxonomic composition, the presence of disturbance-sensitive species and abundance are attributes for monitoring the status of marine angiosperms; a biological quality element required for assessment of environmental condition under the Water Framework Directive (WFD). Their relevance for defining the ecological status of UK water bodies and the establishment of reference conditions for these attributes are described. Founded on quantitative measurements of these attributes, a set of metrics has been developed for monitoring and assessment of the only truly marine angiosperms, seagrass. The proposed metrics are presented and tested against a variety of littoral and sublittoral UK seagrass beds. In combination they express the cumulative response of marine angiosperms to different levels of anthropogenic disturbance.     

Groundwater quality monitoring in Italy for the implementation of the EU water framework directive

In 1999 the Italian Parliament approved a law encompassing all the themes of the water cycle, including monitoring of groundwater. The new regulation takes into account the EU Directives, and charges the Regions to create monitoring networks, according to Art. 8 of the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The approach of the Italian regulation is, on the whole, coherent with the technical guidelines listed in annexes II and V of the WFD. On basis of the new law, the national environment agency (APAT) gathers data and produces assessment reports on the contamination of groundwater in Italy.     

The monitoring of opportunistic macroalgal blooms for the water framework directive

Among the various quality elements which the Water Framework Directive requires should be monitored are macroalgae. One aspect of these is the presence, in transitional waters particularly, of large blooms of opportunistic macroalgae, such as Ulva and Enteromorpha. Within the United Kingdom (UK) and Republic of Ireland (RoI) there are currently no set ecological quality objectives or standards for macroalgae. Nor are there standard methods for monitoring macroalgal blooms, although various combinations of aerial photography, remote sensing and measurements on the ground are used. This paper attempts to set a logical framework for the prioritisation of sites for monitoring, the development of a tiered monitoring procedure and the derivation of thresholds for classification. Draft threshold limits for percentage cover and biomass of macroalgae have been derived from the literature. The importance of secondary effects and physico-chemical parameters is discussed.     

Do the Austrian blackfly fauna (Diptera: Simuliidae) support the typological approach of the EU water framework directive?

The Austrian blackfly fauna were analysed with regard to spatial (ecoregions, bioregions), vertical (altitude classes) and longitudinal zonation characteristics [stream order, biocoenotic (= fish) regions] on the basis of 2600 investigation sites. Of a total of 45 species recorded, Simulium ornatum, S. variegatum, S. argyreatum and S. reptans are the most common and most frequently distributed species, occurring in 60% of the investigated sites. Although the Austrian blackfly fauna seem to be quite well documented (on average one investigation site per 32 km²) the jackknife analyses indicates that there are still some fauna deficits. Whereas the species diversity of the main ecoregions is quite similar, the number of species differs clearly between the bioregions. Within the typological context of the Water Framework Directive, the Austrian Simuliidae confirm the bioregions as the most useful spatial units for river typology. A further optimisation in predicting a target list of blackfly species of a site can be achieved by subdividing the bioregions into either catchment area and altitude classes or into longitudinal zonation types (biocoenotic regions).     

Developing a saltmarsh classification tool for the European water framework directive

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) identifies marine angiosperms (seagrasses and saltmarshes) as one of the biological elements used to classify water body status. This paper concentrates on the saltmarsh classification tools currently under development in the UK and RoI by the Marine Plants Task Team (MPTT) of the UK Technical Advisory Group (UK TAG). Saltmarsh classification is presently focusing on habitat extent, zonation and species diversity in order to fulfil the requirements of the WFD normative definitions. One of the many issues is that the natural rates of erosion and/or accretion differ between locations - this spatial and temporal natural variation is difficult to quantify; the tools and reference conditions developed will need to take this into consideration. To accurately quantify the classification boundaries and natural variability has posed a number of challenges; possible solutions are identified in this paper. Novel future classifications may also include saltmarsh ecosystem functioning (e.g., as a marine fish nursery) which may be further developed in an integrated saltmarsh tool.     

Differences in the abiotic parameters of water in coastal lakes in the light of the EU water framework directive: An example of the Polish southern Baltic coast

Coastal lakes have a specific hydrological regime determined by the influence of sea and inland water and the local hydrographic conditions. There are several problems concerning the protection and assessment of water quality of these bodies. The most important features differentiating coastal lakes from other lakes are: high salinity, a wide range of seasonal and short-term water quality changes, and specific aquatic ecosystems adapted to these conditions. These matters have not been sufficiently taken into account in the existing classifications and typologies of lakes in Poland. The problem has not been solved by the establishment of the adequate reference conditions and new guidelines for the classification of water status (which are being prepared according to the Common Strategy for the Implementation of the Water Framework Directive) regarding inland surface waters (rivers and lakes) and marine waters (coastal and transitional). An important issue is to define criteria which would help to distinguish all those hydrographic objects and to establish water quality standards for them.     

Water quality, nutrients and the water framework directive in an agricultural region: The lower Humber Rivers, northern England

The water quality of rivers in the eastern part of the Humber Basin, north-eastern England is described from a baseflow survey (11–13 August 2006) of a wide range of water quality determinants, and long-term nutrient records of the Environment Agency of England and Wales (EA). The baseflow survey shows that the rivers are oversaturated with respect to dissolved CO₂ and calcite. They are sodium, potassium, lithium, boron, chloride, sulphate and fluoride bearing from a combination of atmospheric, within-catchment, agricultural and sewage effluent sources. Nitrate concentrations are uniform for rivers draining permeable bedrock but decrease for clay drainage areas. Soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations are variable across the catchments reflecting the importance and variability of point sources and within-river processing. The EA data show annual oscillations for both NO₃ and SRP concentrations. Average NO₃ concentrations vary between 3.3 and 18.8 mgN/l and concentrations are low during the summer months. Average SRP concentrations vary between 23 and 1959 μg/l. Highest SRP concentrations generally occur when there is effluent input from sewage treatment works and agricultural point sources (e.g. overflow from slurry tanks, farmyard washings). Despite many of the rivers being nutrient rich, they are generally of good biological quality when point source inputs are not important.     

Ecological classification of macrophytes and phytobenthos for rivers in Germany according to the water framework directive

A new assessment system for macrophytes and phytobenthos in German rivers meeting the requirements of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) of the European Community is described. Biocoenotic types based on biological, chemical and hydromorphological data from over 200 river sites covering the main ecoregions, hydromorphological stream types and degradation forms have been defined. For developing a classification system the quality element macrophytes and phytobenthos was divided into three components: macrophytes, benthic diatoms and remaining phytobenthos. For macrophytes seven types including one subtype, for benthic diatoms 14 types including three subtypes and for the remaining phytobenthos five river types were identified. The benthic vegetation at reference condition was described for most of the river types. Degradation is characterised as deviation in benthic vegetation species composition and abundance from the reference biocoenosis. For classification in five ecological status classes, several metrics were developed and used in combination with existing indices. For some of the described river types additional investigations are necessary before a classification system can be developed.     

Implementation of the European water framework directive from the Basque country (northern Spain): a methodological approach

The European Water Framework Directive provides a challenge in the development of new and accurate methodologies. It addresses assessment of Ecological Quality Status within European rivers, lakes, groundwaters, estuaries and coasts. Although this directive is simple and flexible in its concept, it is necessary to develop an approach based upon scientific knowledge; however, at the same time it should be as simple as possible, in order to achieve both requirements and comparability of results throughout European waters. This contribution presents the first methodological approach to the problem, as used for estuaries and coasts of the Basque Country (northern Spain), in: selecting typologies and reference conditions; determining biological quality and ecological status; and identifying some problems in implementing the WFD. As such, the present paper could serve as the basis for a discussion document for other regions and countries, throughout Europe.     

Biomonitoring of metals under the water framework directive: Detecting temporal trends and abrupt changes,in relation to the removal of pollution sources

Temporal trends in metal concentrations, i.e. Ag, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn, measured in soft tissues of Mytilus galloprovincialis mussels and Crassostrea gigas oysters collected from estuarine waters within the Basque Country (Bay of Biscay), have been investigated to determine if actions undertaken have improved the environmental quality of rivers and estuaries. Data compiled between 1990 and 2010 have been analysed statistically, applying the Mann–Kendall and the Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon tests. Moreover, in those cases with significant trends, the Kolmogorov–Zurbenko Adaptive (KZA) filter was applied to detect abrupt changes. Results showed significant decreasing trends for some metals, i.e. Ni, Cu, Pb and Zn, and differences between medians. Trend lines showed abrupt changes occurring between 1998 and 2002. Therefore, observed downward trends were related to increased wastewater treatment and diversions of discharges to ocean, implemented mainly during 2000–2002.     

The EU directive on port reception facilities for ship-generated waste and cargo residues: current availability of facilities in the North Sea

The aim of this paper is to evaluate the current availability of port reception facilities within the North Sea area. The evaluation is based primarily on original survey data from the summer of 2001, supplemented by existing information from surveys conducted by the International Maritime Organization. The EU Directive on port reception facilities for ship-generated waste etc. (Directive 2000/59/EC) requires that all ports provide facilities to meet the needs of those vessels normally calling in at them. In order for the Directive to be implemented effectively, the physical availability of such facilities is vital. This paper audits the wide range of port types within the region and also outlines the wide range of vessel types using these ports, and their requirements for a range of facilities. On the basis of this analysis, conclusions are drawn about the extent to which the provision requirement of the Directive is already being met.     

Integrated water management in shared water resources: The EU Water Framework Directive implementation in Greece

The political dimension of water becomes highly important not only because of its scarcity, but also as a result of its sharing across national boundaries. Approximately 40% of the global population lives in transboundary water basins, 55% of which are located in Europe, emphasizing the need for cooperation and harmonization of policies. In order to better handle major water problems Europe have adopted the new EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60 the implementation of which is further discussed. Especially in Greece, management of transboundary rivers is of major importance, since roughly 25% of the country’s renewable resources are “imported”. However, lack of integrated approaches and legal agreements as well as administrative shortcomings, make transboundary cooperation and management a hard task. This study refers to 4 shared basins in Northern Greece and demonstrates the problems that occur for their sustainable management.     

Macrophytes and phytobenthos as indicators of ecological status in German lakes — a contribution to the implementation of the water framework directive

A new assessment system for macrophytes and phytobenthos in German lakes according to the Water Framework Directive of the European Community is described. Based on biological, chemical and hydromorphological data from about 100 lake sites covering the main ecoregions, hydromorphological lake types and degradation forms, biocoenotic types could be defined. For developing a classification system the quality element macrophytes and phytobenthos was divided into two components: macrophytes and benthic diatoms. For macrophytes 4 and for benthic diatoms 4 lake types were identified. The benthic vegetation at reference conditions is described and degradation is characterised as deviation in benthic vegetation species composition and abundance from the reference biocoenosis. For classification in five ecological status classes, several metrics were developed and used in combination with existing indices. For a few of the described lake types further investigations are necessary before a classification can be developed.     

Toward the application of ecological concepts in EU coastal water management

The EU Water Framework Directive demands the protection of the functioning and the structure of our aquatic ecosystems. The defined means to realize this goal are: (1) optimization of the habitat providing conditions and (2) optimizing the water quality. The effects of the measures on the structure and functioning of the aquatic ecosystems then has to be assessed and judged. The available tool to do this is 'monitoring'. The present monitoring activities in The Netherlands cover target monitoring and trend monitoring. This is insufficient to meet the requirements of the EU. It is, given the EU demands, the ongoing budget reductions in The Netherlands and an increasing flow of unused new ecological concepts and theories (e.g. new theoretical insights related to resource competition theory, intermediate disturbance hypothesis and tools to judge the system quality like ecological network analysis) suggested to reconsider the present monitoring tasks among governmental services (final responsibility for the program and logistic support) and the academia (data analyses, data interpretation and development of concepts suitable for ecosystem modelling and tools to judge the quality of our ecosystems). This will lead to intensified co-operation between both arena's and consequently increased exchange of knowledge and ideas. Suggestions are done to extend the Dutch monitoring by surveillance monitoring and to change the focus from 'station oriented' to 'area oriented' without changing the operational aspects and its costs. The extended data sets will allow proper calibration and validation of developed dynamic ecosystem models which is not possible now. The described 'cost-effective' change in the environmental monitoring will also let biological and ecological theories play the pivotal role they should play in future integrated environmental management.     

EU shipping in the dawn of managing the ballast water issue

After almost two decades of intensified research, regulatory and political activities focussed on the prevention of harmful organisms and pathogen transfers around the world in 2004 the International Convention on the Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM Convention) was adopted to provide a common and globally uniform ballast water management (BWM) approach. Nevertheless, regionally different BWM approaches are developing. By now, many countries around the world seem to be aware of the ballast water issue and its management limitations. In the EU, different approaches have been identified at regional and national scales. The first voluntary BWM requirements at the regional level have been introduced by the HELCOM and OSPAR countries, Adriatic countries have prepared a common approach considering a new legal framework for implementation, and some national level requirements have also been identified. However, a common EU wide BWM approach has not yet clearly emerged. In this paper the authors review the BWM approaches developing in Europe, and describe the EU response on BWM. The authors further provide recommendations which may be considered when developing BWM measures in the EU. This contribution focuses on the BWM issue in European seas in light of the EU Maritime Policy and EU Marine Strategy. The Caspian Sea was also considered.     

Toward the application of ecological concepts in EU coastal water management

The EU Water Framework Directive demands the protection of the functioning and the structure of our aquatic ecosystems. The defined means to realize this goal are: (1) optimization of the habitat providing conditions and (2) optimizing the water quality. The effects of the measures on the structure and functioning of the aquatic ecosystems then has to be assessed and judged. The available tool to do this is ‘monitoring’. The present monitoring activities in The Netherlands cover target monitoring and trend monitoring. This is insufficient to meet the requirements of the EU. It is, given the EU demands, the ongoing budget reductions in The Netherlands and an increasing flow of unused new ecological concepts and theories (e.g. new theoretical insights related to resource competition theory, intermediate disturbance hypothesis and tools to judge the system quality like ecological network analysis) suggested to reconsider the present monitoring tasks among governmental services (final responsibility for the program and logistic support) and the academia (data analyses, data interpretation and development of concepts suitable for ecosystem modelling and tools to judge the quality of our ecosystems). This will lead to intensified co-operation between both arena’s and consequently increased exchange of knowledge and ideas. Suggestions are done to extend the Dutch monitoring by surveillance monitoring and to change the focus from ‘station oriented’ to ‘area oriented’ without changing the operational aspects and its costs. The extended data sets will allow proper calibration and validation of developed dynamic ecosystem models which is not possible now. The described ‘cost-effective’ change in the environmental monitoring will also let biological and ecological theories play the pivotal role they should play in future integrated environmental management.     

洞庭湖生态水位及其保障研究

湖泊生态水位是维持湖泊生态系统健康的重要因素.基于洞庭湖城陵矶、杨柳潭、南咀3个水文站1959-2016年日平均水位序列进行分析,采用Mann-Kendall法、累积距平法和滑动T检验法综合确定洞庭湖水位变异时间节点,结合生态水位年内展布法以及IHA-RVA法,计算分析湖泊最小和适宜生态水位,并且采用Tennant法进行合理验证,在此基础上对水文变异前、后湖泊生态水位保障度进行研究.研究结果表明:(1)洞庭湖城陵矶和杨柳潭水文站年均水位呈上升趋势,而且城陵矶站水位上升趋势显著,南咀站年均水位呈显著下降趋势.(2)洞庭湖3个典型水文站水位年际变化突变年份为2003年,突变年份基本上与三峡工程蓄水时间相符.(3)城陵矶、南咀和杨柳潭年均最小生态水位分别为21.41、28.95和27.84 m,分别占多年平均水位的86.3%、95.9%和95.7%,城陵矶、南咀和杨柳潭年均适宜生态水位分别为23.29、29.51和28.36 m,分别占多年平均水位的93.9%、97.8%和97.5%,生态水位计算结果考虑了天然湖泊水位年内丰枯变化,满足了湖泊生态目标需求.(4)洞庭湖最低生态水位保障程度较高,基本能达到80%以上,但适宜生态水位保障程度相对较低,其中2003年以后洞庭湖10月和11月生态水位保障程度显著下降,与上游水利工程蓄水有关,建议在此期间采取调度措施适当增加洞庭湖水量,以保障湖泊生态系统的健康与生物多样性.