The combined effect of clay and moisture content on the behavior of remolded unsaturated soils

The behavior of unsaturated clayey soil is highly influenced by the coupled interaction between water and clay content. Various aspects of the behavior of artificial clay–sand mixtures with variable water content were experimentally studied. Laboratory tests were utilized for the determination of consistency limits, the stress–strain relationship, strength parameters, hydraulic conductivity, and volume change characteristics for various combinations of water and clay content in soil mixtures.

Results presented for various clay–sand mixtures include: new normalized consistency limits; the combined effect of clay content and water content on the stress–strain relationship and on the strength parameters (c and φ); and the effect of clay content on hydraulic conductivity and swelling potential. The cohesion of clayey sand is found to increase with increasing water content to a certain limit, above which it decreases. The angle of internal friction for clayey sand is found generally to decrease with increasing water content. The degree of saturation is found to be better than the water content in explaining the strength behavior. The hydraulic conductivity sharply decreases with increasing clay content up to 40% beyond which the reduction becomes less significant. Simple empirical equations are proposed for predicting the swelling potential of clayey soils as a function of either the clay content or plasticity index.     

The liquefaction of clayey soils under cyclic loading

This paper seeks to investigate the liquefaction of clayey soils, a phenomenon that has been the trigger for many natural disasters in the last few decades, including landslides. Research was conducted on artificial clay-sand mixtures and natural clayey soils collected from the sliding surfaces of earthquake-induced landslides. The undrained response of normally consolidated clayey soils to cyclic loading was studied by means of a ring-shear apparatus. For the artificial clay-sand mixtures, it was found that the presence of a small amount of bentonite (≤ 7%) would cause rapid liquefaction, while a further increase in bentonite content (≥ 11%) produced the opposite effect of raising soil resistance to liquefaction by a significant degree. It was demonstrated that the bentonite-sand mixture was considerably more resistant to liquefaction than the kaolin-, and illite-mixtures, given the same clay content. The test results of plastic soils revealed the significant influence of plasticity on the liquefaction resistance of soil. The microfabric of clayey soil was investigated by means of a scanning electron microscope. The analysis showed that the liquefaction potential of soil was strongly related to certain particle arrangements. For example, soil vulnerable to liquefaction had an open microfabric in which clay aggregations generally gathered at the sand particle contact points, forming low-strength “clay bridges” that were destroyed easily during cyclic loading. On the other hand, the microfabric of soil that was resistant to liquefaction appeared to be more compact, with the clay producing a matrix that prevented sand grains from liquefying. In the case of the natural soils, the obtained results indicated that their cyclic behavior was similarly influenced by factors such as clay content, clay mineralogy and plasticity. The relation between the liquefaction potential of natural soil and its microfabric was thus also established. On the basis of the obtained results, the authors posited an explanation on the mechanism of liquefaction for clayey soil.     

Mechanistic approach to the shear strength behaviour of allophanic soils

The presence of allophane minerals imparts special engineering features to the volcanic ash soils. This study examines the reasons for the allophanic soils exhibiting unusual shear strength properties in comparison to sedimentary clays. The theories of residual shear strength developed for natural soils and artificial soil mixtures and the unusual surface charge properties of the allophane particle are invoked to explain the high shear strength values of these residual soils. The lack of any reasonable correlation between ′ (effective stress-strength parameter) and plasticity index values for allophanic soils is explained on the basis of the unusual structure of the allophane particle. The reasons as to why natural soil slopes in allophanic soil areas (example, Dominica, West Indies) are stable at much steeper angles than natural slopes in sedimentary clay deposits (London clay areas) are explained in light of the hypothesis developed in this study.     

Silica fume stabilization of an expansive clay subgrade and the effect of silica fume-stabilised soil cushion on its CBR

ABSTRACT

Expansive soil subgrades, which are subjected to dual swell-shrink problem consequent upon absorption and evaporation of water, need to be improved by chemical stabilization or compacted cushion or geosynthetic reinforcement in order that pavements constructed over them are even, stable and safe. This paper presents extensive experimental data on plasticity, free swell index (FSI) and compaction characteristics of a highly swelling expansive clay stabilized with varying silica fume contents. In another series of tests on a laterite soil to be used as a cushion over the expansive clay subgrade, plasticity properties, compaction characteristics and strength characteristics were determined at varied silica fume contents. Further, CBR of the expansive clay subgrade was determined in the laboratory stabilizing it with varied silica fume contents and providing a cushion of 50 mm thickness of silica fume-stabilized lateritic soil. Liquid limit (LL), plasticity index (PI) and free swell index (FSI) of the expansive clay decreased with increasing silica fume contents. The compaction and strength characteristics of both the soils improved with silica fume stabilization. The CBR of the expansive clay provided with silica fume-stabilized cushion improved significantly.     

Stress-strain behaviour of reconstituted illitic clay at different temperatures

Tests on specimens of reconstituted illitic clay have examined the influence of temperature on the mechanical behaviour of clay soils. The program involved consolidation to effective confining pressures up to 1.5 MPa, heating to 100°C, and tests on normally consolidated and overconsolidated specimens with OCR = 2. The tests included isotropic consolidation, undrained triaxial compression with pore water pressure measurement, drained tests along controlled stress paths to investigate yielding behaviour, and undrained tests which involved heating and measurement of the resulting induced pore water pressures. The large strain strength envelope is independent of temperature. However, peak undrained strengths increase with temperature because smaller pore water pressures are generated during shearing. An important contribution from the study is a series of results for the yielding of illitic clay at three different temperatures. For the first time, there is clear evidence of yield loci decreasing in size with increasing temperature. An associated flow rule can be assumed without serious error. The results contribute to the confirmation of a thermal elastic-plastic soil model developed by the authors from cam clay following the addition of a small number of extra assumptions. Depending on the initial stress state, heating under undrained conditions may produce shear failure.     

Study on the swelling behaviour of blended clay–sand soils

Soils containing expansive clays undergo swelling that can be both detrimental and beneficial in various applications. In the Arabian Gulf coastal region, natural heterogeneous soils containing clay and sand (tills, shales, and clayey sands) support most of the civil infrastructure systems. Likewise, mixes of clay and sand are used for local earthwork construction such as roads and landfills. A clear understanding of the swelling behaviour of such soils is pivotal at the outset of all construction projects. The main objective of this paper was to understand the evolution of swelling with increasing clay content in local soils. A theoretical framework for clay–sand soils was developed using phase relationships. Laboratory investigations comprised of mineralogical composition and geotechnical index properties of the clay and sand and consistency limits, swelling potential, and morphology of clay–sand mixes. Results indicated that soil consistency of mixes of a local expansive clay and an engineered sand depends on the weighted average of the constituents. Mixes with 10% clay through 40% clay capture the transition from a sand-like behaviour to a clay-like behaviour. Influenced by the initial conditions and soil matrix, the swelling potential of the investigated mixes correlated well with soil plasticity (SP(%) = 0.16 (I _p)^1.188). The parameters sand void ratio and clay–water ratio were found to better explain the behaviour of blended clay–sand soils.     

城市河道淤泥特性及改良试验初探

以南京内秦淮河疏浚淤泥为例,通过土工试验、XRD和X射线荧光光谱试验等方法,研究了城市河道淤泥的物理性质、矿物成分、化学成分等特性。试验结果显示:秦淮河淤泥粘粒含量低、有机质含量极高,矿物成分主要有石英和少量粘土矿物等。为了实现淤泥的资源化处理,运用水泥、石灰无机固化材料对淤泥进行固化改良试验及改性土无侧限抗压强度试验,结果表明随着水泥掺量增加,水泥固化土由塑性破坏向脆性破坏过渡,破坏应变在1.8%~2.2%,而石灰固化土均表现为脆性破坏,且破坏应变小于水泥土,为1%左右。水泥固化土28d强度为670kPa,固化效果优于石灰,但略低于处理一般软土的固化土强度。研究结果对处置城市河道淤泥有一定参考价值。     

Evaluation of Engineering and Cement–Stabilization Parameters of Clayey–Sand Mixtures under Soaked Conditions

Clay soils, especially clay soils of high or very high swelling potential often present difficulties in construction operations. However, the engineering properties of these clay soils can be enhanced by the addition of cement, thereby producing an improved construction material. Higher strength loss of cement stabilized clay soils after soaking in water is attributed to water absorbing capacity of the clay fraction (e.g. montmorillonite). Kaolinite and illitic soils are largely inert and resist to water penetration. These clays generally develop satisfactory strengths resulting to low strength reduction [Croft, 1967]. The swelling clays such as bentonite soaked in water, due to environmental conditions, result to volume increase causing macro and micro-fracturing in engineering structures. These fractures accelerate water penetration and consequently cause greater strength loss [Sällfors and Öberg-Högsta, 2002]. The water intrusion during soaking creates swelling and disrupts the cement bonds. The development of internal and external force systems in soil mass, due to soaking conditions, establish the initiation of slaking. Internal force system of a stabilized clayey soil consists of the resultant stresses established by the bonding potential of a cementing agent and the swelling potential of a clay fraction. In an effort to study this influence of soaking conditions and final absorbed water content on the stabilization parameters (cement, compaction, curing time), both unconfined compressive strength and slaking (durability) tests were carried out on two different cement stabilized clayey mixtures consisted of active bentonite, kaolin and sand.     

Effects of soil pulverization quality on lime stabilization of an expansive clay

Lime stabilization is an effective way of stabilizing expansive clays, which cause significant environmental problems both as earth and foundation materials. There are considerable environmental benefits in using the in situ lime-stabilized expansive soils in the construction of road pavements, fill or foundations instead of importing valuable granular materials. However, due to high plastic nature of these clays, achieving appropriate pulverization in field applications is a difficult task. This paper presents the results of a laboratory investigation to determine the effects of soil pulverization quality on lime stabilization of a local expansive clay. Effect of mellowing the soil–lime mixtures for 24 h was also studied to find out whether this would compensate for poor pulverization. The clay studied had swelling pressures varying between 300 and 500 kN/m² and free swell potential as high as 19%. In this study, 3, 6 and 9% lime by dry weight were used for lime-stabilized samples. Unconfined compression strength, failure strain and Secant Elasticity Modulus values were measured through unconfined compression strength testing. The results of the study showed that lime stabilization improved plasticity, workability, compressive strength, elastic moduli and swelling and compressibility behavior of the expansive clay. While mellowing did not have a definite effect on the measured strength and moduli values, soil pulverization quality considerably affected the unconfined compression strength and Secant Elasticity Modulus values. The higher the percentage passing No. 4 sieve, the higher the effectiveness of lime treatment. Based on the data obtained in this study, two original equations were derived to assign Secant Elasticity Modulus based on unconfined compression strength, for different soil pulverization qualities. Microfabric investigations conducted by Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope and Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry exposed the effect of lime stabilization on fabric, porosity and pore size distributions. The results of the study clearly demonstrated that if enough time and effort were not given to soil pulverization process in lime stabilization works in field applications, lower performance and therefore increased environmental problems should be expected.     

一种适用于饱和黏土循环动力分析边界面塑性模型的隐式积分算法

修正了传统隐式回映算法,建立了适用于饱和黏土循环动力分析的边界面塑性模型的完全隐式积分格式。该模型基于无弹性域概念和临界状态理论,采用各向同性、运动硬化准则、旋转的边界面,并引入表征土体结构损伤和重塑程度的损伤变量以反映循环载荷作用下饱和黏土的各向异性、刚度、强度软化及塑性变形累积等特征。针对等压固结 和偏压固结 的饱和高岭黏土的不排水三轴试验进行模拟,采用不同的应变增量步长进行计算,并与试验数据对比,结果表明,修正隐式回映算法应用于该类边界面模型的合理性、积分格式的精确性和稳定性;另外,结合有限元软件自动时间步长的增量迭代解法,对饱和黏土应力控制的不排水动三轴试验进行预测,结果表明,修正的适用于该边界面的塑性模型隐式回映算法可以得到比较合理的数值分析结果,能够反映饱和黏土的循环刚度的退化和强度的弱化等动力特性。     

Effect of cyclic loading on monotonic shear strength of fine-grained soils

In this study the effect of cyclic loads on monotonic shear strength has been studied on torsional apparatus. Tests have been conducted on both reconstituted and undisturbed fine-grained hollow soil specimens. The plasticity index of soils is in the range from 2 to 33 for reconstituted specimens, prepared by dry pluviation, and from 5 to 13 for undisturbed soil specimens. The existence of a critical shear strain level, called yield shear strain, where softening starts, is determined from cyclic tests. The level of cyclic yield strain is ± 0.75% for the reconstituted soil specimens and ± 0.5% for the undisturbed soils. If soil undergoes a cyclic shear strain level below the cyclic yield strain, reduction of monotonic strength of reconstituted and undisturbed specimens is limited, but when cyclic shear strain level is larger than yield strain monotonic strength decreases down to 40% of its initial strength.     

Effects of surfactants and electrolyte solutions on the properties of soil

Biosurfactants are frequently used in petroleum hydrocarbon and dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) remediation. The applicability of biosurfactant use in clayey soils requires an understanding and characterization of their interaction. Comprehensive effects of surfactants and electrolyte solutions on kaolinite clay soil were investigated for index properties, compaction, strength characteristics, hydraulic conductivities, and adsorption characteristics. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and NaPO₃ decreased the liquid limit and plasticity index of the test soil. Maximum dry unit weights were increased and optimum moisture contents were decreased as SDS and biosurfactant were added for the compaction tests for mixtures of 30% kaolinite and 70% sand. The addition of non-ionic surfactant, biosurfactant, and CaCl₂ increased the initial elastic modulus and undrained shear strength of the kaolinite–sand mixture soils. Hydraulic conductivities were measured by fixed-wall double-ring permeameters. Results showed that the hydraulic conductivity was not significantly affected, but slightly decreased from 1×10⁻⁷ cm/s (water) to 0.3×10⁻⁷ cm/s for Triton X-100 and SDS. The adsorption characteristics of the chemicals onto kaolinite were also investigated by developing isotherm curves. SDS adsorbed onto soil particles with the strongest bonding strength of the fluids tested. Correlations among parameters were developed for surfactants, electrolyte solutions, and clayey soils.     

滇西北红粘土的工程地质特性及其灾害效应

在野外地质调查的基础上,结合室内土工试验,系统分析了滇西北红粘土的物质组成、物性特征和工程地质特性,并以此为基础探讨了其地质灾害效应。研究结果表明：滇西北红粘土粒度组成主要以粘粒为主,粘土矿物成分比较复杂,在丽江以南其矿物成分主要以高岭石（K）为主,在丽江以北则以伊利石/蒙脱石（I/S）混层矿物为主。此外,滇西北红粘土具有含水量高、重度低、塑性高、膨胀性弱等物性特征,在天然状态下比较稳定,但是随着含水量的增加其土体强度大大降低,易引发滑坡、水土流失等地质灾害。     

南海北部区域黏土循环动力特性试验研究

采用南海北部区域油田场址钻孔原状土样,开展黏土循环动力特性试验研究。结合共振柱与应变控制的循环单剪试验,获取动剪切模量和阻尼比随循环剪应变的变化规律,将最大动剪切模量与原位静力触探的计算结果进行对比。开展应力控制的循环单剪试验,采用对称加载方式获取土样动强度阈值,基于该阈值,通过单、双向加载方式获取土样动强度包络线,并将试验结果与Drammen黏土及世界范围内其余区域黏土进行对比。该研究初步获取了南海北部区域性黏土的循环特性及动力学参数,为南海北部区域油气田结构设计和地质风险评估提供基础资料,掌握了循环动力特性试验方法,为岩土工程动力学试验研究及数据分析提供技术参考。     

Anisotropic bounding-surface plasticity model for the cyclic shakedown and degradation of saturated clay

The cyclic behaviours of embedded offshore structures under different cyclic loading levels are related to the cyclic shakedown and degradation of the surrounding soils. In the present study, a damage-dependent bounding-surface model based on a newly proposed hardening rule was developed to predict the cyclic shakedown and degradation of saturated clay and the effect of the initial anisotropic stress state. By extending the Masing’s rule to the bounding-surface plasticity theory, the stress reversal point is taken as the generalised homological centre of the bounding surface. With movement of the generalised homological centre, at lower stress amplitudes, the cyclic process ends at a steady state, and cyclic shakedown is reached. At higher stress amplitudes, a damage parameter related to the accumulated deviatoric plastic strain is incorporated into the form of the bounding surface, which is hence able to contract to model degradations in stiffness and strength. To take into account the effects of initial anisotropic conditions on the cyclic behaviour of soils, an initial anisotropic tensor is introduced in the bounding surface. The developed model is validated through undrained isotropic and anisotropic cyclic triaxial tests in normally consolidated and overconsolidated saturated clay under both one-way and two-way loadings. Both cyclic shakedown and degradation are well reproduced by the model, as is the anisotropy effect induced by the initial anisotropic consolidation process.     

Sand and clay mineralogy of sal forest soils of the Doon Siwalik Himalayas

The peteromineralogical characterization of the soil was carried out for the 12 soil profiles exposed in the Shorea robusta dominated forests of the Siwalik forest division, Dehradun. The quartz was observed as the dominating light mineral fraction (64–80%) in all the profiles studied. Biotite, hornblende, zircon, tourmaline, rutile and opaques comprising of iron minerals constituted the heavy mineral fraction (20%). The mineralogy of both the sand and clay fractions revealed a mixed mineralogy. The clay minerals in the order of their dominance were vermiculite, illite, kaolinite and mixed layer minerals. The presence of vermiculite and illite in appreciable quantities indicates that these were synthesized from the K-rich soil solution, as orthoclase and micas were present in significant quantities in the sand minerals. The mineral suites identified in the study shows that the geological, climatological and topographical factors of the region collectively played a dominant role in their formation and transformation. After critical appraisal of the results, it may be deduced that the mineralogical composition, physicochemical properties and total elemental analysis of the soils do not show any deficiency of the bases and other plant nutrients in general. The inherent fertility of the soil is good as indicated by the sand and clay mineralogy of the soil and the biotite and feldspar together with the mica is an important source of nutrients for the vegetation in the soils of the Doon valley.     

矿渣胶凝材料固化软土的力学性状及机制

利用矿渣胶凝材料固化软土,既可利用工业废渣,又能减少水泥的用量。以矿渣胶凝材料固化黏土、砂土二种软土。发现矿渣胶凝材料加固软土的效果远好于水泥、石灰,其9 %掺量的固化土28 d的无侧限强度达到2.0 MPa以上,普遍高于15 %掺量的水泥固化土,且其28 d固化土的软化系数普遍高于90 %以上,固化黏土后CBR值远高于同掺量的石灰固化土。X衍射结构分析表明,矿渣胶凝材料水化时产生的高强难溶的矿物晶体是其固化软土效果好的主要原因。因此,矿渣胶凝材料是一种性能优异的软土加固材料。     

Some mechanical properties of reconstituted Boom clay

Summary The mechanical behaviour of reconstituted normally consolidated Boom clay was examined in a series of laboratory triaxial stress path tests. The aim was to establish some basic characteristics of this soil. The compressibility of the reconstituted Boom clay was found to be moderate, corresponding to the soils of the same plasticity. The results indicated also that the destructured Boom clay exhibited a brittle behaviour. The undrained secant stiffness was found to vary with strain level and also to be dependent on the consolidation pressure.     

Investigation of expansive soils in Obhor Sabkha,Jeddah-Saudi Arabia

Expansion or swelling of soil is a worldwide geotechnical problem that occurs in arid and semiarid regions where sabkha soils may occur as well. Expansive soil is dominated by the presence of active clay minerals. The expansive and sabkha soils are characterized by a large seasonal variation in soil moisture content leading to a large change in the volume and the consistency of the soil and, thus, causing serious damages to buildings and infrastructure. Although sabkha soil covers large and strategically important areas along the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coasts in Saudi Arabia, no one paid proper attention to the type of clay minerals in those soils or to their expansion potential, which is a crucial step prior to any construction. The geotechnical properties, active clay mineral types, and the degree expansion potential of soils were investigated in Obhor area at the north of Jeddah City. Twenty disturbed soil samples were collected at depths of 80 and 120 cm. Three different types of soils are identified: clayey soil with high plasticity, clayey soil with low plasticity, and poorly graded silty to clayey sand soil. Furthermore, active clay minerals were identified with a significant proportion of montmorillonite (14.24 %), illite (24.65 %), kaolinite (28.78 %), and chlorite (32.34 %). The results indicated that a considerable part of the study area has high expansion potential, but most parts of Obhor area have low to none potential of soil expansiveness.