Revisiting the 'pivot': the influence of Halford Mackinder on analysis of Uzbekistan's international relations

Since the end of the Soviet Union, many foreign policy intellectuals have peculiarly identified the Republic of Uzbekistan as the locus of Mackinder's 1904 'pivot' designation. A century on from his original 'Geographical pivot of history' lecture, this paper examines the work of a Russian, an Uzbek, and an American who use Mackinder to understand contemporary Uzbekistani geopolitical orientations, in particular with reference to the USA. Drawing on critical work on the history of geopolitics, it highlights that whilst these texts claim objectivity, they betray political and subjective foreign policy choices. It suggests that whilst the revival of interest in Mackinder testifies to the continued attraction of his ideas, this has, with rare exceptions, been based upon a superficial reading of both his work and the body of secondary literature, and that this raises both disciplinary and ethical concerns.     

South American heartland: the Charcas, Latin American geopolitics and global strategies

Mackinder's 1904 'geographical pivot of history' concept, subsequently developed into his famous 'Eurasian heartland thesis', marginalizes South America, yet his ideas have attracted considerable interest there, including interpretations (and fantasies) of a 'South American heartland'. This paper examines the reception of Mackinder's ideas in Latin American geopolitics and how his heartland thesis was adapted for the South American context. It traces the roots of this adaptation in earlier South American geopolitical writing, and examines these ideas of counter-insurgency policies and global geopolitical strategies, analysing their relationship to military and anticommunist perspectives.     

The geographical pivot of history and early twentieth century geopolitical culture

This article offers a re-interpretation of the geographical pivot of history by setting it in the context of the international relations and strategic debates of the early twentieth century, and by engaging with the historiography of British foreign policy during the Edwardian period. The overall argument is that the prospective effort of Mackinder does not appear as merely speculative but is in fact rather well grounded in the fundamentals of British foreign policy and more directly relevant than hitherto assumed. Identifying a trend towards a shift in the equilibrium between land power and sea power, Mackinder emphasized – and perhaps over-emphasized – a Russian threat to British interests but considered that Germany alone only posed a minor threat. Such analysis seems to be remarkably in tune with British geopolitical culture around 1904, and with the ideas of the British Prime Minister Arthur Balfour. The way in which Mackinder further stressed that a combination of the two main continental powers would represent a major peril for Britain has hitherto been treated rather dismissively. This article however shows how twice during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–5 Wilhelm II attempted to bring such an alliance about. This article attempts to reassess the actual impact of the geographical pivot of history and more broadly of Mackinder's thought, usually considered minimal, on British foreign policy before 1914. Finally, a number of issues that seem to deserve further attention are suggested, in particular that of the influence exerted by Mackinder before 1914, and that of the genesis of Mackinder's conception of the 'pivot zone' or 'heartland'.     

Globalising New Zealand : Fonterra Co-operative Group, and shaping the future

New Zealanders have little collective vision of their position and future in a globalising world. Recent developments in New Zealand's primary sector show potential pathways to the future. We explore two claims: thinking about New Zealand is to think about the emergence of Fonterra Co-operative Group in New Zealand's globalising economy. Thinking about Fonterra is to think about New Zealand and the implications that spring from globalising activities. Fonterra is a lens to understand better the possibilities and development options and the challenges that are arising as New Zealand forges its place in a globalising world.     

George Jobberns,freemasonry, geopolitics and the post‐WWII world

The article suggests Jobberns’ view of geopolitics ultimately rested on the work of British geographer Sir Halford Mackinder overlain by the writing of American political geographers. Jobberns’ geopolitical thinking was, however, also strongly informed by his being a Freemason. WWII, as the overshadowing external event of Jobberns’ early years at Canterbury, amplified his interest in geopolitics both as a way of understanding the world and, at a time when geography was not universally accepted as a university discipline, as a means of promoting to a wider public the utility of a geographical perspective on world affairs.     

Geopolitics of the energy transition

Geopolitics of energy transition has increasingly become the frontier and hot research area of world energy geography and global political science. Different historical periods are characterised by obvious differences in energy connotations, attributes, and geopolitical characteristics. In the new energy era, energy geopolitics becomes more diversified, complex, and comprehensive. In this paper, we compare the geopolitical characteristics of energy in the fossil fuel and renewable energy periods...     

Re-interpretation of the classical geopolitical theories in a critical geopolitical perspective

Struggling for supremacy between great powers and the rise or fall and regime change of great powers are all subject to the Geopolitical Law. Geographers should keep in step with the times, accurately grasp the national interests, and seize the opportunity to contribute to the great rejuvenation of our nation. However, due to lack of criticism on the history and philosophy of geopolitics, we can neither accurately understand the geopolitical theory, nor effectively put the geopolitical theory into practice. This paper introduces the development of critical geopolitics, summarizes the three characteristics of critical geopolitics, and interprets the four classical geopolitical theories accordingly. In order to simplify the interpretation process, this paper firstly presents an analytical framework for interpretation of four classical geopolitical theories; secondly, focuses on interpretation of “The Geographical Pivot of History” put forward by Mackinder according to the analytical framework; finally, critically summarizes the four classical geopolitical theories. Through the critical interpretation, this paper draws a conclusion that there are the scientific, hypothetical and conceptual classical geopolitical theories. The construction of classical geopolitical theories is based on the international geopolitical structure, spatial distribution of national interests and inter-state spatial conflict, in order to show the identity of theoretical constructor, so as to reflect the historicality, sociality, situationality and geographical knowledge–power structure of geopolitical theories.     

“心脏地带”理论与俄乌冲突

俄乌冲突被广泛认为是冷战后欧洲最严重的地缘政治危机之一,不仅造成两国大量人员伤亡,也牵动了整个世界,引起中国、美国、欧盟和俄罗斯之间的复杂博弈,推动世界政治经济分裂和去全球化加速,因而可能成为冷战后全球势力格局演变的一道分水岭。本文运用经典地缘政治理论——麦金德的“心脏地带”理论来分析这场冲突的地理动力机制及时空规律,以助于认清复杂变局中中国面临的地缘安全风险和挑战。文章在回顾“心脏地带”理论核心要义的基础上,分别考察了该理论对俄罗斯和美国地缘政治思想和地缘战略实践的影响,最后分析了乌克兰在“心脏地带”中地理位置的特殊性及其在东西方力量博弈中的遭遇和处境。文章指出,从表面看,俄乌冲突发生于因历史问题分歧严重的两个东斯拉夫国家之间,但它的实质却是俄罗斯与北约长期对峙形成的结构性矛盾的总爆发,是“心脏地带”陆权力量与“边缘地带”海权力量两大板块相互挤压和对撞的结果,位于“心脏地带”与“边缘地带”结合部的乌克兰因此沦为大国地缘争斗的牺牲品。     

Trading Strategies for New Zealand: The GATT, CER and Trade Liberalisation

Abstract. Despite the dramatic post-1984 changes in the management of the New Zealand economy, including the establishment of a more diverse pattern of trading partners and products, there remain significant external constraints. New Zealand's position outside major trading blocs is problematic at a time of declining terms of trade for agro-commodities. In this essay, the strategies pursued to improve New Zealand's trading position are considered with special reference to the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Closer Economic Relations (CER) with Australia, and the promotion of trade liberalisation.     

能源转型的地缘政治研究

在全球能源转型的大背景下,能源转型的地缘政治问题日益成为世界能源地理及政治学研究的前沿和热点领域。不同阶段的能源内涵、属性及地缘政治特征存在明显差异,在可再生能源时代,能源地缘政治更加多元化、复杂化和综合化。本文对比了不同阶段能源的地缘政治特征,梳理了可再生能源地缘政治的研究历程。研究认为：全球能源转型将加剧地缘政治格局的重构,改变传统能源安全主导的地缘安全与冲突关系,改变不同国家在全球能源地缘政治中的角色,重塑传统油气时代所形成的国家能源关系,同时也将凸显新能源技术和关键稀缺材料对能源转型地缘政治的影响,并引发新的能源网络安全问题。研究发现虽然各学科的学者对能源转型的地缘政治进行了广泛关注,但是当前关于能源转型的地缘政治影响,仍存在诸多不确定性,在理论框架、技术方法、研究视角等方面仍存在发展和完善的空间。展望未来,能源转型的地缘政治研究亟待加强学科理论研究,推动能源转型地缘政治的科学计量研究转向,加强服务学科发展和国家能源安全重大决策的应用研究,探究能源转型对传统能源地缘政治重构的地理效应、能源转型地缘政治的作用机理和能源转型地缘政治对能源安全的影响。同时要紧密结合气候变化、“双碳”目标、全球能源治理等国际学术前沿来开展能源转型的地缘政治研究,以丰富世界能源地理的研究视角。     

Embracing postcolonial geographies: Contributions by Dame Evelyn Stokes to the development of postcolonial geography in New Zealand

Abstract: This paper acknowledges Dame Evelyn Stokes’ introduction of postcolonial critical analysis of Māori/Pākehā relationships before postcolonialism was established as a field of theoretical enquiry. The paper reviews research I have done on some of the issues faced by the Mashantucket Pequots in the wider context of the contribution Dame Evelyn Stokes was making to similar debates in New Zealand. She emphasized that Māori research and knowledge provide a different world view and that this world view needs to be taken into account in any geographical study of New Zealand. Only in this way will it be possible to avoid the continued marginalization of Māoris from nation building in their own country.     

The political pivot of geography

The paper examines the geographical work of Peter Kropotkin and Halford Mackinder, making clear the political choices behind their very different geographical imaginations. Both writers responded directly to Keltie's report on geographical education and the paper uses these manifestoes as the starting point for an analysis of their relations to geographical thought and geographical institutions.     

在学科发展的演变中理解和把握地缘政治及地缘政治学——兼论对地缘环境研究的启示

通过对地缘政治学发展演变的系统梳理,将“地缘政治”理解为解析国际政治或国际秩序特有的空间视角和多要素、跨领域和跨尺度的综合分析方法,而地缘政治学则是其特有空间视角和综合分析方法以及基于其视角和方法形成的理论学说的集合。这种特有视角集中体现在对国家层面空间范围内的自然要素和人文要素的优化组合分析,在系统层面的比较和关联分析以及跨领域和跨尺度的相互作用研究。研究方法主要有时空分析法、历史分析法和系统分析法等。但是,整体而言,地缘政治学是一门发展极不完善的学科,这不是源于其思想不够深邃,而是源于分析方法和分析技术无法跟上复杂现实的需求。这为开启真正的中国地缘政治研究提供了绝佳的机遇,中国学者不应该仅仅成为西方地缘政治学说的跟随者和推广者,而应成为原创理论和方法的贡献者。这或许就是国内在复兴地缘政治研究中确立以地缘环境解析的理论与方法为研究主要方向的根本原因。     

THE CASTLE HILL BASIN.

CORRIGENDA. Professor V.J. Chapman has written to the Editor asking that two items be emended in his article, 'The Geographical Status of New Zealand Lowland Forest Vegetation' which was published in the New Zealand Geographer , Volume 14, Number 2, October 1958. On page 106, Metrosideros umbellata in line I should read Metrosideros robusta whilst P. nivalis in line 17 should read P. hallii.     

地图投影与地缘政治理论构建——以麦金德地缘政治思想为例

地缘政治理论的提出和发展深刻烙印了地图的影响。在地缘政治发展史中,不同地图投影既服务于各思想家的理论提出,也深入到各思想家在不同时期对自身理论的动态修正。地图投影到底是如何参与到地缘政治理论构建过程中的?本文在既有地缘政治地图研究的基础上,从空间性和文本性两大地图基本属性出发,通过阐释并沟通地图的空间分析与话语分析功能,探讨地图投影与地缘政治理论构建间的关系。一方面,地图投影变形抽象后的心象地图框架为构建地缘政治理论提供了空间依托;另一方面,地图投影通过地图变形在复杂情境中聚集了丰富的文本性含义。在地图投影各层次文本性的互文（互补性叙事）下,新的地图话语得以产生并渗透进心象地图,具象式推动了地缘政治理论核心概念的生成和逻辑关系的构建。综合考虑麦金德的地图观影响,本文对麦金德“心脏地带”地缘政治思想变迁各阶段（1904年、1919年、1943年）地图投影透视的分析验证了该关系框架的解释力。这启示该分析框架在其他地缘政治理论研究中的潜在适用性,更期待在百年变局和复兴全局等交织下的复杂情境中,基于地图投影创新互文下的中国地缘政治理论构建。     

New Zealand in the Post Cold-War World

Abstract. The paper examines political and economic aspects of New Zealand's position in the world in the aftermath of the Cold War. It stresses the need for a balanced approach to the country's connections with the major power centres of the capitalist West, in an emerging multipolar geopolitical environment. It warns against disproportionate enthusiasms for particular places or concepts. New Zealand's national identity and interests have a distinctive South Pacific bicultural context, and this has a strong relevance for New Zealand's international profile, especially in relation to Australia.     

基于社会网络分析的东南亚地缘关系研究

在全球化背景下,考察国家间地缘关系需将其置于宏观地缘格局中。安全等传统地缘政治因素仍对世界格局的变化起着重要推动作用,不可忽视。鉴于此,本文构建了地缘系统视角下地缘关系分析框架,结合社会网络分析方法,定量研究冷战后东南亚地缘系统内地缘经济和地缘政治（安全）关系的整体与结构特征,测度系统内各国在经济和安全上的权力特征以及依赖关系,并初步探索东南亚地缘政治（安全）依赖关系形成机制。结果显示：① 冷战后东南亚地缘系统内对东南亚10国地缘经济权力总和最高国家的转移路径是从日本到美国再到中国;对东南亚10国地缘政治（安全）权力总和最高的国家始终是美国,2005年以后中国跃居至第二位,但与美国还有明显差距。在地缘经济领域,东南亚国家总体上对中国的依赖水平最高;在地缘政治（安全）领域,东南亚各国对美国及其盟友英、法、德等国的依赖较高,中俄也不可忽视;“东南亚在经济上靠中国、安全上靠美国”的地缘政治论述可见一斑。② 国家实力差异是产生安全依赖关系的根本动力;国家间地理距离可以调节安全依赖的具体方向;国家的政治地理属性差异是形成安全依赖和影响安全依赖程度的重要条件。     

Placing Geographical Imagination in Film: New Zealand Filmmakers' Use of Landscape

The paper explores the role of landscape in New Zealand films. How is the New Zealand landscape imagined and revealed? What kind of landscape do filmmakers present? I argue that New Zealand filmmakers tap into specific geographical imaginations when they make films, and that this results in certain kinds of landscapes being produced. I sketch the methodology used in a survey of New Zealand films and ‘read’ a selection of opening and closing sequences and ‘generic places’ found in a selection of contemporary New Zealand films. 1 then offer some conclusions about New Zealand films, and their production, portrayal and imagining of New Zealand.     

俄罗斯与乌克兰冲突的地缘政治渊源与地缘战略逻辑

俄罗斯与乌克兰的地缘政治关系是国际地缘政治、国际关系学者关注的热点问题。俄乌冲突是典型的大国影响下的主权国家地缘战略选择所引发的地缘冲突问题。俄乌冲突涉及到两国的地理区位、历史渊源以及地缘博弈等复杂问题,这正是地理学,尤其是地缘政治学对解析地缘环境变化与地缘冲突的独特视角。本文借鉴“战略三角”理论建立对俄乌冲突的理论分析框架,聚焦俄罗斯与乌克兰的地缘政治渊源和地缘战略的逻辑,系统梳理了俄乌之间的政治关系、文化渊源,探讨了乌克兰的地缘环境与地缘战略选择的变化。在此基础上,从地缘政治学和国际关系学融合互鉴的视角阐述俄乌冲突的地缘政治生成逻辑,以期为大国博弈与小国安全提供新的理论认知和实践剖析。