Salt and subsidence in Cheshire,England

Rock salt occurs in the Keuper Marl Series of Cheshire. There are two saliferous beds, the lower being 190 m and the upper 404 m thick. However, most of the Triassic rocks in Cheshire are covered by thick superficial deposits. Nevertheless natural brine springs occur at the surface and salt has been evaporated from these springs since pre-Roman times.Subsidence occurs as a result of wild brine pumping. Gradual collapse takes place above the subterranean brine runs giving rise to cambered depressions at the surface, the flanks of which are often interrupted by tension scars. Flashes occupy many of these depressions. The most disastrous subsidences occurred towards the end of the nineteenth century due to bastard brine pumping, that is, pumping, with reckless abandon, from old mine workings. The associated subsidences were rapid and caused the destruction of many buildings. One of the awkward characteristics of subsidence in salt due to wild brine pumping is that it is unpredictable, indeed subsidence may occur several kilometres from the point of extraction. This means that an individual brine pumper could not and still cannot be proved responsible for subsidence. Accordingly, the Cheshire Brine Subsidence Compensation Board was established by act of Parliament at the end of the nineteenth century which obliged each brine pumper to contribute towards the compensation fund. Because controlled solution mining has not given rise to subsidence in its 40 years of operation this form of extraction is eventually to be extended throughout the whole of the salt field, another field is now being developed. It is hoped to phase out wild brine pumping by the 1980's.     

GIS and ANN coupling model: an innovative approach to evaluate vulnerability of karst water inrush in coalmines of north China

Evaporites, including rock salt (halite) and gypsum (or anhydrite), are the most soluble among common rocks; they dissolve readily to form the same types of karst features that commonly are found in limestones and dolomites. Evaporites are present in 32 of the 48 contiguous states in USA, and they underlie about 40% of the land area. Typical evaporite-karst features observed in outcrops include sinkholes, caves, disappearing streams, and springs, whereas other evidence of active evaporite karst includes surface-collapse structures and saline springs or saline plumes that result from salt dissolution. Many evaporites also contain evidence of paleokarst, such as dissolution breccias, breccia pipes, slumped beds, and collapse structures. All these natural karst phenomena can be sources of engineering or environmental problems. Dangerous sinkholes and caves can form rapidly in evaporite rocks, or pre-existing karst features can be reactivated and open up (collapse) under certain hydrologic conditions or when the land is put to new uses. Many karst features also propagate upward through overlying surficial deposits. Human activities also have caused development of evaporite karst, primarily in salt deposits. Boreholes (petroleum tests or solution-mining operations) or underground mines may enable unsaturated water to flow through or against salt deposits, either intentionally or accidentally, thus allowing development of small to large dissolution cavities. If the dissolution cavity is large enough and shallow enough, successive roof failures can cause land subsidence and/or catastrophic collapse. Evaporite karst, natural and human-induced, is far more prevalent than is commonly believed.     

The GIS approach to evaporite-karst geohazards in Great Britain

Evaporite karst in Great Britain has formed in Permian and Triassic gypsum, and in Triassic salt. Active dissolution of these deposits can occur on a human rather than a geological timescale causing subsidence and building damage. The British Geological Survey has taken two approaches towards understanding and advising on hazards caused by dissolution of these soluble rocks. At a detailed level, a national database and GIS of karstic features is being populated. Information gathered includes dolines, springs, stream sinks, caves and building damage. At a national level, the soluble rocks in Great Britain have been identified and digital-map polygon information relating to them was extracted from the British 1:50,000-scale digital geological map. These areas have been assessed, and in places their margins extended to include some overlying rocks where subsidence features are known to penetrate upwards through the overlying sequence. The national areas have then been assessed using detailed local information to assign a susceptibility rating from A (extremely low) to E (high), depending on the nature and regularity of the subsidence events that occur. This national zonation of the soluble rocks can be used for planning, construction and in the insurance businesses. This has proved useful for assessing the potential stability of linear routes, such as roads and pipelines or for other important structures such as bridges and buildings. The information can also be used to delineate zones of karstic groundwater flow.     

四川省盐源县盐泉的特征与形成

研究天然盐泉的形成有助于揭示陆地水文循环过程中的物质迁移。采用水文地球化学的方法,分析四川省盐源县的9个泉水和卤水水样的水化学特征和同位素特征,探讨盐泉的溶质来源,总结盐泉的成因模式。水样可以分为TDS为311.69 g/L的Cl-Na型卤水、TDS为55.77~89.43 g/L的Cl-Na型盐泉、TDS为1.17 g/L的Cl-Na型微咸泉和TDS为0.26~0.56 g/L的以HCO₃-Ca、HCO₃·SO₄-Ca·Mg型为主的淡水泉。泉水和卤水的氢氧同位素显示其来源于大气降水;水样的特征系数显示盐泉和卤水都属于溶滤型,且指示研究区基本不具有找钾前景。泉水的盐分主要来源于石盐、方解石、石膏和白云石等矿物的溶滤。盐泉的形成模式可以概括为:在山区获得大气降水入渗补给后,地下水经历较浅和较深的地下径流并且溶滤含盐地层或者盐矿,使其矿化度升高,在地形较低处汇集出露地表成泉。     

Mining subsidence and its effect on the environment: some differing examples

 The impact of mining subsidence on the environment can occasionally be very catastrophic, destroying property and even leading to the loss of life. Usually, however, such subsidence gives rise to varying degrees of structural damage that can range from slight to very severe. Different types of mineral deposits have been mined in different ways and this determines the nature of the associated subsidence. Some mining methods result in contemporaneous subsidence whereas, with others, subsidence may occur long after the mine workings have been abandoned. In the latter instance, it is more or less impossible to predict the effects or timing of subsidence. A number of different mineral deposits have been chosen to illustrate the different types of associated subsidence that result and the problems that arise. The examples provided are gold mining in the Johannesburg area; bord and pillar mining of coal in the Witbank Coalfield, South Africa; longwall mining of coal in the Ruhr district; mining of chalk and limestone in Suffolk and the West Midlands, respectively; and solution mining of salt in Cheshire. These mineral deposits have often been worked for more than 100 years and, therefore, a major problem results from abandoned mines, especially those at shallow depth, the presence of which is unrecorded. Abandoned mines at shallow depth can represent a serious problem in areas that are being developed or redeveloped. Abstraction of natural brine has given rise to subsidence with its own particular problems and cannot be predicted. Although such abstraction is now inconsequential in Cheshire, dereliction associated with past subsidence still remains. Received: 21 October 1999 · Accepted: 14 February 2000     

Development of the Wink Sink in west Texas,U.S.A., due to salt dissolution and collapse

The Wink Sink, in Winkler County, Texas, is a collapse feature that formed in June 1980 when an underground dissolution cavity migrated upward by successive roof failures until it breached the land surface. The original cavity developed in the Permian Salado Formation salt beds more than 400 m (1,300 ft) below ground level. Natural dissolution of salt occurred in the vicinity of the Wink Sink in several episodes that began as early as Salado time and recurred in later Permian, Triassic, and Cenozoic times. Although natural dissolution occurred in the past below the Wink Sink, it appears likely that the dissolution cavity and resultant collapse described in this report were influenced by petroleum-production activity in the immediate area. Drilling, completion, and plugging procedures used on an abandoned oil well at the site of the sink appear to have created a conduit that enabled water to circulate down the borehole and dissolve the salt. When the dissolution cavity became large enough, the roof failed and the overlying rocks collapsed into the cavity. Similar collapse features exist where underground salt beds have been intentionally dissolved during solution mining or accidentally dissolved as a result of petroleum-production activity.     

四川盐源盐矿成盐成钾分析预测

四川盐源盆地盐矿成盐于早、中三叠世时期,区域构造复杂,经历多期次的构造变动与演化,在成盐后经历了种种的基底反复变动后形成盐矿底辟构造。以前在该区域做过多方面的研究工作,其中包括三叠纪岩相古地理及生物古地理、三叠系地层、区域古构造演化及水化学分析、物探、钻探等勘探工程。通过这些工作可以证实,盐源盆地在早、中三叠世,经历了蒸发岩盆地的发育阶段。盆地不仅发育有石膏夹层,而且保存有石盐层及含盐卤水层,但有盐无钾。通过对上覆的陆相古近纪和新近纪盆地中出现的三叠系岩盐层和盐丘的研究发现,它们与基底为含盐的海相蒸发岩有一定的内在联系,尽管还不能确定其盐、钾资源前景,但可以确定该区域有成钾盐矿藏的条件和可能,因此,该盆地有可能成为深入研究成盐找钾的重点地区。     

Evaporite karst in Sicily

Karst areas are distributed over most of Sicily. The most widespread karst rocks are carbonates, particularly limestones, but karst phenomena can also be seen in evaporites and particularly in salt mines. This report provides an overview of evaporite karst in Sicily, along with a “case history” that shows some of the evaporite karst risks to the environment. In the centre and south of Sicily, a thick sequence of Messinian evaporite rocks are subject to dissolution from meteoric and formation waters. In areas where potassium salts and rock salts are being mined, some geomorphologic changes result from the drilling of boreholes and the collapse of underground mines, thus lowering or collapsing the land surface. An example is the old salt mine “Muti-Coffari”, situated in the commune of Cammarata, where there is a modification of the surface flow of the River Platani. Meteoric waters and runoff flow down through a borehole, enter the underground mine cavity and dissolve the salts, and then the resulting brine flows into a branch of the river, making it salty. Field investigations showed the presence of salt along the edges and on the bed of the stream where it comes out of the cave. Therefore, interventions for risk mitigation are necessary since the old mine constitutes a serious danger for damage or collapse of nearby infrastructures, and can lead to degradation of the river ecosystem and the natural environment.     

从四川盆地盐类变质资料看找钾方向

四川盆地三叠系盐类在地史经历中，经受强烈的热融和水溶变质作用，使盐类沉积原始面貌发生深刻变化。（钾组分转入液相，形成液态钾盐—富钾卤水）现剖面所见硬石膏、杂卤石、硫镁矾、无水钾镁矾等多系热融和水溶变质产物。面对这一现实，理顺和拓宽四川找钾思路，勘查开发液态钾盐，是四川找钾的新方向。     

Geochemistry of Great Salt Lake,Utah I: Hydrochemistry since 1850

The hydrochemistry of Great Salt Lake, Utah, has been defined for the historic period, 1850 through 1982, from published data combined with new observations. The water balance depends largely on river inflow, atmospheric precipitation onto the lake surface and evaporation. Input of the major solutes can best be accounted for by mixing dilute calcium-bicarbonate type river waters with NaCl-dominated hydrothermal springs.Prior to 1930, lake concentrations fluctuated inversely with lake volume in response to small climatic variations. Since then, salt precipitation and dissolution have significantly modified lake brine compositions and have led to density stratification and the formation of brine pockets of differing composition. Brine mixing has become an important component of brine evolution. We have used calculated evaporation curves with mineral precipitation and dissolution to clarify these processes.Pore fluids represent important storage for solutes. Solute profiles can be modeled by simple one-dimensional diffusion calculations. Short-term historic variations in lake composition affect shallow pore fluids in the upper 2 metres of sediment.     

综合物探在柴达木盆地盐湖深层卤水钾矿勘查中的应用

青海省柴达木盆地是著名的钾肥生产基地,也是中国盐类矿产的主要产地.以往盐类矿产勘查主要针对第四纪浅部盐类矿产,对第四纪深部及古近纪-新近纪卤水钾矿工作程度较低,资源勘查情况不明.由于盐湖区浅部卤水矿化度较高,会对电阻率类方法造成严重的低阻屏蔽效应,从而影响其探测深度,对于应用地球物理方法造成了极大的局限性.为查明该区深部卤水钾矿资源情况,采用对低阻异常敏感、信号强度大、纵横向分辨率高的瞬变电磁法（TEM）,并结合勘探深度较大的大地电磁测深法（MT）对深层卤水钾矿进行探测.勘查结果识别出了相对低阻异常区,经后期钻孔验证,显示探测结果较为可靠,表明TEM、MT两种物探方法应用于盐湖区深层卤水钾矿探测是有效的,揭示了TEM、MT综合物探方法在盐湖区探测深层钾盐资源的良好应用前景.     

Subsidence hazards due to evaporite dissolution in the United States

Evaporites, including gypsum (or anhydrite) and salt, are the most soluble of common rocks; they are dissolved readily to form the same type of karst features that typically are found in limestones and dolomites, and their dissolution can locally result in major subsidence structures. The four basic requirements for evaporite dissolution to occur are: (1) a deposit of gypsum or salt; (2) water, unsaturated with CaSO₄ or NaCl; (3) an outlet for escape of dissolving water; and (4) energy to cause water to flow through the system. Evaporites are present in 32 of the 48 contiguous states of the United States, and they underlie about 35–40% of the land area. Karst is known at least locally (and sometimes quite extensively) in almost all areas underlain by evaporites, and some of these karst features involve significant subsidence. The most widespread and pronounced examples of both gypsum and salt karst and subsidence are in the Permian basin of the southwestern United States, but many other areas also are significant. Human activities have caused some evaporite–subsidence development, primarily in salt deposits. Boreholes may enable (either intentionally or inadvertently) unsaturated water to flow through or against salt deposits, thus allowing development of small to large dissolution cavities. If the dissolution cavity is large enough and shallow enough, successive roof failures above the cavity can cause land subsidence or catastrophic collapse.     

Pot-hole Subsidence in Underground Coal Mining: Some Indian Experiences

Subsidence is a gradual or sudden depression of the ground on the surface due to extraction of minerals from underground. It occurs in two forms, namely, trough and pot-hole subsidence. Trough subsidence is a depression covering a large surface area, whereas pot-hole subsidence is a localized phenomenon which occurs due to sudden collapse of overburden into the underground voids. Pot hole is extremely hazardous as it does not give any prior indication before its occurrence. Several pot-holes have occurred in the recent past in the coal mines of South Eastern Coalfield Limited and therefore the study assumes great importance. This paper presents the mechanism, behaviour and critical influencing parameters concerning pot-holes. Field investigations and analysis carried out on pot-holes which occurred in some of the Indian coal mines are presented for highlighting the importance of the same.     

GIS-based assessment of risk due to salt mining activities at Tuzla (Bosnia and Herzegovina)

Ground subsidence triggered by salt mining from deposits located beneath the city of Tuzla (Bosnia and Herzegovina) is one of the major dangers acting on a very densely urbanized area since 1950, when the salt deposit exploitation by means of boreholes began. As demonstrated in this paper, subsidence induced several hazard factors such as severe ground deformations, the arising of deep and superficial fractures and a very fast water table rise, connected with the brine extraction, now affecting several districts. The above mentioned factors have been quantified by the use of geomatic methodologies, including field surveys and analysis of geographical data. In order to estimate the historical sinking rates, authors processed the large (and never before processed) amount of topographical data collected during two periods; from 1956 to 1991, and from 1992 to 2003, with only poor data collected. Afterward, traditional surveys were completely and definitively stopped. The analysis reveals a cumulative subsidence as high as 12 m during the whole period, causing damage to buildings and infrastructures within an area that includes a large portion of the historical town, at present almost entirely destroyed. Modern sinking rates have been monitored with static GPS whereas the presence of superficial fractures monitored with kinematic GPS. Factors related to the presence of deep fractures and water table rise have been evaluated by curvature analysis techniques and piezometric data respectively. Finally, hazard factors have been combined in a risk map using the GIS (Geographical Information System) map algebra capabilities and a simple multicriteria decision analysis (MDA). In order to do that, a vulnerability map has been derived on the basis of information reported on a couple of recently sensed high resolution satellite imageries. The final risk, arisen from the combination of single hazard factors and vulnerability map, highlights critical scenarios and unsuspected threatening that are under consideration by the local decision makers and urban planners. In particular, as highlighted in the final risk map, the present-day water table rise, triggered by the decrease in brine pumping, is seriously posing a threat to a portion of the city which is not the most involved in ground deformations.     

盐穴储气库破坏后地表沉陷规律数值模拟研究

地下盐穴储气库在天然气调峰和保障供气安全上具有不可替代的作用。地下盐穴储气库达到设计年限后,将报废而逐步垮塌,必然引起严重的地表沉陷。因此,对盐穴储气库破坏后地表沉陷规律进行研究具有十分重要的意义。考虑到目前的数值分析软件进行地表沉陷分析的不足,开发了用于盐穴储气库破坏后地表沉陷数值模拟的有限元专用软件-2D-Sink,该软件具有处理破碎岩块的能力。应用2D-Sink对盐穴储气库破坏后引起的地表沉陷规律进行了系统的研究,共建立了6种模型进行数值模拟,分别研究了地表沉陷层理效应、地表沉陷的岩层倾斜效应、地表沉陷的断层效应和多盐穴地表沉陷规律。对多溶腔地表变形曲线与单溶腔叠加的地表变形曲线进行比较,验证了地表沉陷叠加原理的正确性。研究成果为盐穴储气库报废后地表沉陷灾害控制提供了理论基础。     

察尔汗盐湖固体钾盐溶解对溶剂注入速率响应机制研究

察尔汗盐湖浅部储卤层赋存有储量可观的固体钾盐资源, 目前正处于溶解液化开采阶段。储卤层中固体钾盐矿物溶解及储卤层结构变化特征受到溶剂注入速率控制, 但其控制机制尚不明确。本文以察尔汗盐湖浅部储卤层典型钻孔岩芯为研究对象, 通过开展室内岩芯柱渗流模拟实验, 研究岩芯在三种流速条件下储卤层渗透系数和固体钾盐矿物溶出的变化规律。结果表明: (1)随着注入溶剂速率的增大, 岩芯渗透系数呈现逐渐增大的趋势, 渗出液中钾离子浓度呈现持续减小的趋势, 但在流速改变的时间节点处, 岩芯渗透系数和其对应溶出液中钾离子浓度均出现异常增加现象。矿物的溶解引起储层孔隙度增加, 而溶剂流速的改变会导致松散盐类矿物颗粒重组。(2)储卤层岩芯固体钾盐矿物溶解受到溶剂注入速率的影响明显。注入速率增加引起矿物颗粒重组以及滞留孔隙高浓度水体释放是造成渗出液中K+浓度短暂性升高的主要原因。本次实验研究对于研究区低品位固体钾盐的水溶开采具有一定理论指导意义。     

川东北地区三叠系聚盐成钾机制及富集模式

川东北地区三叠系发育巨厚的蒸发岩层,并赋存优质的深层富钾卤水.因构造沉积条件的整体差异,川东北富钾卤水的成因机制与富集规律未有详尽研究.以"气钾兼探"为指导思想,综合利用野外露头?岩心?测井等资料,对川东北地区三叠系蒸发岩分布规律以及岩相古地理演化进行分析,明确了膏盐盆在T1j4?5?T2l1期间规模逐渐缩小、向SW逐...     

Effects of tectonic structures, salt solution mining, and density-driven groundwater hydraulics on evaporite dissolution (Switzerland)

Subsurface dissolution (subrosion) of evaporites such as halite and gypsum can lead to extensive land subsidence. Recent land subsidences have been surveyed at six separate locations in northwestern Switzerland. The diameters of the affected surface areas range from 100 to 1,500 m, and corresponding subsidence rates reached more than 100 mm/year. Based on a geometrical model, three sites could be outlined where land subsidence can likely be attributed to salt solution mining. The effects of increased hydrostatic gradient due to both groundwater withdrawal and fluid density contrasts were evaluated in more detail for the remaining sites with a series of 2D density-coupled solute-transport simulations along an approximately 1,000-m-long and 150-m-deep 2D cross section. Simulation results indicate that the upconing process of saline groundwater into the main aquifer occurs under different distributions of subsurface parameters and hydraulic boundary conditions. For the presented setup, the simulations also revealed that the most sensitive factor for the dissolution rate is the structure or dip of the halite formation, which leads to an increase of dissolution rate with increasing dip. Due to the increased density of the brine, an intrinsic flow dynamic develops which follows the direction of the dip.     

Identifying sources of salinization using hydrochemical and isotopic techniques, Konarsiah, Iran

Konarsiah salt diapir is situated in the Simply Folded Zone of the Zagros Mountain, south Iran. Eight small permanent brine springs emerge from the Konarsiah salt body, with average total dissolved solids of 326.7 g/L. There are numerous brackish to saline springs emerging from the alluvial and karst aquifers adjacent to the diapir. Concerning emergence of Konarsiah diapir in the study area, halite dissolution is the most probable source of salinity in the adjacent aquifers. However, other sources including evaporation and deep brines through deep Mangerak Fault are possible. The water samples of the study area were classified based on their water-type, salinity, and the trend of the ions concentration curves. The result of this classification is in agreement with the hydrogeological setting of the study area. The hydrochemical and isotopic evaluations show that the groundwater samples are the result of mixing of four end members; Gachsaran sulfate water, Sarvak and Asmari carbonate fresh waters, and diapir brine. The molar ratios of Na/Cl, Li/Cl, Br/Cl, and SO₄/Cl; and isotopic signature of the mixed samples justify a groundwater mixing model for the aquifers adjacent to the salt diapir. The share of brine in each adjacent aquifer was calculated using Cl mass balance. In addition, concentrations of 34 trace elements were determined to characterize the diapir brine and to identify the possible tracers of salinity sources in the mixed water samples. B, Mn, Rb, Sr, Cs, Tl, and Te were identified as trace elements evidencing contact of groundwater with the salt diapir.     

准噶尔盆地的类型和构造演化

准噶尔盆地的早二叠世属于裂谷还是前陆盆地 ,存在意见分歧 ;晚二叠世—老第三纪盆地的性质也不确定。文中通过对盆地构造几何学、沉降史、热史及火山岩的综合分析研究 ,对盆地类型和构造演化获得了一些新的认识 :( 1)准噶尔盆地在早二叠世为裂谷 ,晚二叠世为热冷却伸展坳陷 ,三叠纪—老第三纪为克拉通内盆地 ,新第三纪至今 ,由于印度板块与亚洲大陆碰撞才形成陆内前陆盆地。 ( 2 )对石炭纪—早二叠世的岩浆活动结合区域构造资料的研究表明 ,准噶尔地区古生代的板块运动和造山作用具软碰撞特点 ,早二叠世的裂谷盆地是在软碰撞背景下造山带伸展塌陷的产物。 ( 3)地幔热对流作用可能是软碰撞造山后伸展塌陷的主要深部动力学机制。